5,090 Matching Annotations
  1. Apr 2017
    1. distal

      Away from the point of attachment. For example, your fingers are distal to your shoulder.

      For a picture, see:

      https://www.geol.umd.edu/~jmerck/geol431/images/directions.jpg

    2. limb blastemal cells

      The limb blastema is the site of regeneration. It is the region where the salamander's limb has been damaged and/or removed and the limb will regrow. The limb blastema cells are composed of specialized cells that are able to regenerate structures of the limb.

      The blastema is formed after "healing," which ensures there isn't serious blood loss. For a picture see:

      [http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/imgs/512/397/2656220/2656220_jbiol105-1.png] (http://openi.nlm.nih.gov/imgs/512/397/2656220/2656220_jbiol105-1.png)

    1. ecologically-consistent organizational learning

      Learning organizations have cultures that support change. In these type of organizations, members are continuously encouraged to learn and try new things. These kinds of organizations are flexible and dynamic, and thus well-equipped to change and adjust to new circumstances.

      The Natural Step is just one of several programs that help learning organizations adapt specifically to the new ecological realities of our planet, such as limited resources.

    2. grassroots initiatives

      When ordinary people, rather than elected or appointed leaders, start activities and projects to solve local problems.

    3. “biophilic” designs

      Techniques for creating buildings that reflect the natural habitat in which humans evolved. Buildings can directly use nature in their design (e.g., using walls of vegetation) or are built with natural materials. More commonly, biophilic design uses textures, shapes, and forms that mimic the natural environment.

    4. growth economy

      The assumption that over time an economy has the capacity to produce more goods and services per person.

    5. indigenous cultures

      People with historical roots to a geographical area. Often used to refer to the people who originally occupied land.

    6. Traditional Ecological Knowledge

      Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) is the body of knowlege acquired by indigenous people over the course of hundreds of years by paying close attention to the natural environment around them.

      For more information see the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service fact sheet: https://www.fws.gov/nativeamerican/pdf/tek-fact-sheet.pdf

    7. mitigate

      Reduce; lessen in severity.

  2. Mar 2017
    1. galvanize

      Motivate, mobilize.

    2. surmount

      Overcome.

    3. heuristic

      A mental shortcut.

    4. affinity

      Those we like or admire.

    5. injunctive norms

      Behaviors that are generally approved of by others.

    6. descriptive norms

      Descriptive norms are typical behaviors; what most people do.

    7. distraction

      Shifting attention to activities that are less stressful, such as changing the channel when disturbing news comes on.

    8. existential threats

      Mortality; literally, threats to our existence.

    9. stymied

      Blocked, thwarted.

    10. curtail

      Inhibit, reduce.

    11. industrialization

      The Industrial Revolution about 200 years ago introduced factories, various chemical processes, and other technologies that altered society and our relationship with the natural world.

    12. reticent

      Reluctant or slow.

    13. contingency trap

      The conflict between short- and long-term interests. Short-term benefits usually outweigh long-term costs, and short- term costs often discourage action, even when it would lead to long-term benefits.

    14. anthropogenic

      Human-caused.

    15. surrounding infrastructure

      Facilities and systems. For example, public transit is more energy efficient than driving personal cars, but many communities don't have bus or train service.

    16. social milieu

      The social and cultural context; i.e., what other people are doing.

    17. counterproductive

      Actions that oppose a goal.

    18. counterintuitive

      Not what you would expect.

  3. Feb 2017
    1. G2

      This is the second gap phase of the cell cycle, between DNA replication (S phase) and mitosis (M phase). During G2, the cell prepares to divide.

      To move on to the next phase (the M phase), a checkpoint ensures that all chromosomes are fully replicated and have no other types of damage.

    2. DNA complements of 2n or 4n

      The number of full chromosome sets in a cell is indicated as a multiple of n. A eukaryotic cell with two complete sets of chromosomes is therefore described as being "2n" (or "diploid").

      After DNA replication in the S phase, the cell's DNA content doubles, and it now contains four complete copies of the genome, making it "4n." Then, after the cell divides in the M phase, there are two daughter cells, each with two complete sets of chromosomes (2 x 2n cells).

      Most cells cycle between being 2n and 4n. Sperm and egg cells (gametes), however, are special cases: They are "haploid" and contain only one set of chromosomes, making them 1n or simply n. Gametes therefore cycle between being 1n and 2n.

    3. cell cycle

      Each time the cell divides into two, it goes through a sequence of events that may include growth, DNA replication, preparation to divide, and finally division. We collectively refer to these events as the "cell cycle," and to the four major events as "phases" (G1, S, G2, and M phase).

      Specialized proteins called "cell cycle regulators" or "checkpoint proteins" regulate the progression from one phase to the next. The progression through these checkpoints is a strictly regulated process that usually works without errors. When errors do occur, they can have catastrophic consequences, including the development of cancer.

      Use this interactive tutorial to learn more: http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/eukaryotic-cell-cycle-and-cancer

    1. segregation analyses

      A technique used to determine how a trait is inherited, and if it is inherited in a standard (Mendelian) way.

    2. autosomal

      Refers to the autosomes, or the 22 numbered chromosomes (which do not include the sex chromosomes).

    3. pedigrees

      Refers to both the family tree and the ancestry of the subjects. In biology, pedigrees are represented with a standard set of symbols:

    4. syndromic autism

      Here, "syndromic" means common varities of autism.

    5. monogenic neurological disorders

      Disorders caused by a single gene.

    6. copy number variants

      Phenomenon in which sections of the genome are repeated (2), deleted (1) or inverted (3). It has been shown that CNVs at specific locations increase the risk to develop autism.

    7. de novo mutation

      A mutation is de novo when it appears for the first time in an individual, rather than being inherited. It is usually the result of a mutation in a germ cell of one of the parents, or a mutation that arises in the fertilized egg itself. It is also known as a new mutation.

    8. neuropsychiatric

      A mental disorder that is caused by the nervous system.

    9. homozygosity mapping

      A method for mapping genes that are involved in rare, recessive disorders. It is used in inbred populations (populations where many individuals are related to each other). Because these populations are very highly related, individuals will share large areas of their chromosomes surrounding target genes.

    10. whose level of expression changes in response to neuronal activity

      Synapses-the electric signals sent by the nervous system-regulates the expression of certain genes.

    11. homozygous deletions

      Deletions in which the genetic information is missing on both chromosomes.

    12. mapped several loci

      Locus (pl. Loci.) : The locus of a gene is its physical location on a specific chromosome.

      Mapping consists of locating the genes on the chromosomes. Example for the gene BRCA:

    13. autism-spectrum disorders

      Autism-spectrum disorders (ASD), sometimes referred to collectively as "autism," are a family of developmental disorders that have different symptoms and intensities.

    1. PSGL-1

      P-selectin glycoprotein ligand 1 interacts with the P-selectin found on platelets.

      For reference, P-selectin functions as a cell adhesion molecule on activated platelets. Ligands are molecules that produce a signal by binding to a site on a target protein (in this case, the P-selectin on platelets).

  4. Jan 2017
    1. bottom topography

      the shape and features of the bottom of the ocean

    2. brittle stars

      Sea stars from the class Ophiuroidea. Brittle stars are named so for their fragile thin arms.

    3. schooling

      Swimming together in a group. Schooling behavior provides benefits to individual fish, such as safety in numbers.

    4. cryptic

      camouflaged

    5. Montastrea annularis

      Montastrea annularis (now known as Orbicella annularis) is a species of coral that can grow into giant boulder-shaped heads. It is commonly known as boulder star coral.

    6. Succession

      Ecological succession is the predictable change in a community over time, usually referring to changes after a disturbance or initial colonization of a habitat.

    7. Coral reefs

      Corals are a group of colonial marine animals that form hard calcium skeletons. They have stinging cells that can be used to catch and kill small prey but also often carry symbiotic algae inside that they can use to convert sunlight into cellular energy.

      When corals live together in large groups, they can form a buildup of sediment and minerals in the ocean called a reef. The complex structures of reefs are habitats for many other ocean animals.

    8. polychaetes

      Polychaetes are a diverse group of worms. Polychaetes are commonly found at the bottom of the ocean and are an important part of marine food webs.

    9. patchy

      uneven, with some spots being affected more than others

    10. Acropora palmata 

      Acropora palmata is commonly known as Elkhorn coral for its antler-like appearance. As a result of its complex 3-d shape, Acropora palmata adds significant structure to coral reefs and forms an important habitat for many other marine organisms.

    11. substraturn

      The substratum is the underlying layer of rock or sediment. This refers to the surface that the corals attach to.

    1. nanoscale

      Nanoscale relates to objects whose characteristic dimensions lie between 1 and 999 nm (=10<sup>-9</sup> m). It is the scale below the microscopic scale.

    1. Fisher’s method

      Fisher's method is a statistical procedure for conducting meta analyses, in which the results of all included studies are combined. The procedure examines the p-values of the individual studies, and allows inferences on whether the null hypothesis (that there are, in fact, no effects) holds.

    2. transparency

      Transparency here means that the process in which a specific result was achieved is made as accessible for other researchers as possible, by explaining publicly, and in detail, everything that was done in a study to arrive at a specific result..

    3. meta-analyses

      Meta-analyses integrate the results of multiple studies to draw overall conclusions on the evidence.

    4. P value

      A p-value is a statistical threshold for determining if a result is extreme enough to be considered compelling evidence, because it is unlikely that this result would manifest in the data if the effect did not exist in reality.

    5. eye tracking machines

      Eye tracking machines are devices that can record eye-movements and make it possible to show what information people look at without asking them explicitly what they are attending to.

    6. social psychology

      Social psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that studies how people interact with their social environment, and how their thoughts and behaviors are affected by others.

    7. correlation coefficient (r)

      A correlation coefficient describes the linear interdependence of two variables. It shows both the direction (positive coefficient: as A increases, B increases as well; negative coefficient: as A increases, B decreases), and the strength of the relationship (coefficient close to zero: strong relationship; coefficient close to +/- 1: weak relationship).

      For example, there might be a positive correlation between years of attendance to school and crystallized intelligence: with increasing school attendance, people could acquire more knowledge. On the other hand, there could be a negative correlation between age and fluid intelligence: with increasing age, people could get worse at solving problems in new situations.

    8. sufficient

      Sufficient conditions are the circumstances that are enough to find a specific effect. If these conditions are not met, the effect could still be found in another way.

      For example, to find the effect that people can be manipulated to be more prosocial, it is sufficient to study what happens after you ask participants to think about a time where someone was generous to them, and then ask them to make a donation. This circumstance could be enough to make people more prosocial (it would therefore be sufficient), but you could think of other circumstances that could achieve the same result.

    9. necessary

      Necessary conditions are the circumstance that must be met in order to find a specific effect. If these conditions are not met, the effect cannot be found.

      For example, to find the effect that prosocial people are more likely to give change to a beggar, a necessary condition would be studying human subjects, not penguins.

    10. moderate

      In statistics, moderations refers to the dependence of the relationship between two variables on a third variable.

      For example, the positive relationship between socioeconomic status and health (the higher one's status, the better one's health) could be moderated by one's sense of control: people in low income groups with high sense of control might show health levels comparable with people from high-income groups, whereas people in low income groups with low sense of control have worse health (Lachman & Weaver, 1998).

    11. Reproducibility

      Reproducibility is the feature of an experiment that speaks to whether it can be run again, and if the same results as in previous runs of this experiment can be found. If an experiment has been reproduced successfully, it has been conducted more than once, and the overall evidence suggests that the original findings holds in the reproducing studies (also referred to as replication studies, or replications) as well.

    12. t test for dependent samples

      The t-test for dependent samples is a statistical procedure that is used on paired data to compare the means of two groups.

    1. nonprimate

      Any animal that is not a member of the group of animals that includes human beings, apes, and monkeys.

    1. eudaimonic

      Eudaimonic well-being, as compared with hedonic well-being, relates more to the achievement/fulfillment of meaning in life.

      It relates to happiness/well-being that is achieved through a virtuous or transcendent life.

    1. autotrophs

      Organisms such as plants and algae that use sunlight to produce their own energy source. They do not need to eat.

    2. moieties

      Sections of a molecule

    3. zenith angle

      How high in the sky the sun will get during the day

    4. photomineralization

      Breakdown of organic carbon to carbon dioxide driven by sunlight

    5. quantified concurrently

      Measured at the same time

    6. water column

      From the surface of the water to the bottom

    7. photodegradation

      Breakdown by sunlight

    8. chromophoric

      Light-absorbing (yes, this word is redundant)

    9. photostimulated

      Sunlight-driven

    10. C cycling

      Carbon "cycling" happens when carbon changes forms in the environment, for example, when dissolved organic carbon oxidizes to form carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), or when plants use CO<sub>2</sub> for photosynthesis. Carbon is not destroyed in the environment, but it frequently changes forms.

      Image Description Image from globecarboncycle.unh.edu

    11. flux

      Amount transfered

    12. flocculated

      Clumped together in particles

    13. carbon budget

      The carbon budget is the amount of carbon dioxide that can be emitted before the earth starts to experience the most dangerous impacts of climate change.

    14. partial oxidation

      Partial oxidation is when organic carbon is broken down, but not all the way. Partially oxidized carbon is not released into the atmosphere. Partial oxidation still requires oxygen (not as much as complete oxidation), though no carbon dioxide is produced.

      An example would be "fading" of a colored fabric that you leave out in the sun, like a favorite blue hat that you wear all the time. The dye (which is made of organic carbon) gets broken down by light and fades in color, but it isn't converted into CO<sub>2</sub>.

    15. CO2

      Carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>), is the main form of carbon in the atmosphere.

      CO<sub>2</sub> is a “greenhouse gas,” which means that extra CO<sub>2</sub> in Earth’s atmosphere contributes to global warming.

      It is made when other forms of carbon are completely oxidized.

    16. complete oxidation

      Complete oxidation is when organic carbon is broken down as much as possible to form inorganic carbon in the form of carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>).

      Oxidation of organic carbon to CO<sub>2</sub> requires oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) and is an important piece of the carbon cycle, that is, the cycling of carbon between its organic forms (organic carbon, DOC), and inorganic carbon (CO<sub>2</sub>).

      One molecule of oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>) is required for each molecule of CO<sub>2</sub> that is produced from the oxidation of organic carbon.

    17. Carbon

      Carbon is an element that is found in all living things and in many other substances in the environment, such as carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>). It can also be found in soil and can be dissolved in lakes, rivers, and oceans.

  5. Dec 2016
    1. arborescent gorgonians

      Gorgonians are part of a group of corals often called "soft corals" due to their lack of a rigid calcified skeleton. Arborescent means "tree-like," referring to gorgonians that specifically have upright tree-like forms.

    2. fecund

      Fecundity refers to the ability for an organism to produce offspring. If an organism is more fecund, this means it produces more offspring.

    3. recruiting

      Recruitment refers to the successful addition of new individuals to a population.

    4. Demersal plankton

      The demersal zone is the layer of water nearest to the bottom of the ocean. Plankton are tiny microscopic organisms that live in the water column.

    5. Motile Organisms

      Motile organisms are organisms that can move around, such as shrimp or fish. Sessile organisms, like corals, do not move for the majority of their lives.

    6. hydrocoral Millepora spp.

      A hydrocoral looks like a coral, but is actually in the class Hydrozoa rather than the class Anthozoa, like true corals. Millepora hydrocorals are also known as fire coral due to their painful sting.

    7. encrusting

      Encrusting animals form a thin layer (i.e. a "crust") over another hard surface.

    8. polyps

      While corals may look more like plants than animals, corals are actually a colony of many tiny animals living together. Each "individual" animal is called a polyp.

    9. foliaceous

      Foliaceous means "leafy." Foliaceous corals create multiple thin layers that somewhat resemble plant leaves.

    10. Diadema antillarum

      Diadema antillarum is commonly known as the long-spined sea urchin. Before populations of Diadema antillarum died off in 1983 in massive numbers, they were a common sight in Caribbean reefs and played an important role in controlling the growth of macroalgae.

    11. Fore Reef

      The fore reef is the ocean-facing section of a reef.

    12. Agraria spp.

      Agaricia is a genus of corals that form flat leaf-like or plate-like structures. The "spp." means "multiple species of." So Agaricia spp. means "species of the genus Agaricia."

    13. reef flat

      The flat part of a coral reef, closer to shore.

    14. breaker zone

      As ocean waves move towards shallower waters, they eventually become unstable and break. A breaker zone is a region where waves begin breaking.

    15. taxonomic

      Taxonomy is the science of describing, identifying and classifying species. Taxonomic differences, in this context, are differences in the species present.

    16. community composition

      A community is a group of interacting organisms that live in the same location. Community composition is the makeup of a community

    17. natural experiment

      When natural events (i.e. fires, hurricanes or other disturbances) happen to only some areas, scientists can study the effects by comparing affected and unaffected sites. This is a natural experiment.

  6. Nov 2016
    1. cortical layering

      Development of the layers of the brain.

    2. caspase 3/7

      Caspases are endoproteases (a type of enzyme that breaks down proteins) that play a critical role in both inflammation and cell death.

      The presence of caspase 3 and 7 can be used as a sign that cells are preparing to die.

    3. pyknotic

      A nucleus whose chromatin has condensed in preparation for apoptosis (programmed cell death)

    4. Apoptotic nuclei

      A nucleus that has started to prepare for programmed cell death (apoptosis)

    5. glial

      Cells located in the central nervous system which protect and support neurons in their function.

      Glial cells differ from neurons since they do not participate in electrical signaling.

    6. ultrastructural

      Smaller than what can be seen with a light microscope

    7. in vitro

      In a controlled experimental environment.

    8. mock-

      Mock NSCs were not infected with Zika.

    9. RT-PCR

      Real-time polymerase chain reaction, a variant of PCR. It allows for real-time monitoring of DNA amplification and quantification of the product.

      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction

    10. MOI

      The "multiplicity of infection," which is the average number of virus particles that infect a cell.

    11. neural stem cells

      Undifferentiated cells in the nervous system that have the potential to develop into any type of cell.

    12. induced pluripotent stem (iPS)

      These are differentiated cells which have been reprogrammed into pluripotent ones. This means that they have the ability to develop into any type of cell.

    13. amniotic fluid

      The liquid that surrounds the fetus for its protection, keeping a constant temperature and environment.

    14. placenta

      An organ that develops only during pregnancy to provide oxygen and nutrients needed for the growth of the baby.

    15. flavivirus

      A type of viruses usually spread through mosquito and tick bites. They include West Nile and dengue virus.

    16. in utero

      In the womb.

    17. congenital infections

      The infection of a baby by a virus during a pregnancy.

      Such a transmission between the baby and the mother is possible either through the placenta or the birth canal.

    18. Syphilis)

      Syphilis is a sexually transmitted infection caused by a bacteria known as Treponema pallidum.

    19. Herpes virus,

      Herpes virus infections take place around mouth, lips, genitals, or rectum.

    20. Cytomegalovirus

      CMV infections spread through contact with body fluids, and often occur in those with weak immune systems.

    21. Rubella

      Rubella is an RNA virus that is normally spread through the air by coughing or breathing.

    22. Toxoplasmosis

      A disease caused by a parasite called Toxoplasma gondiiand.

      It is usually transmitted by eating uncooked food that contains cysts or by exposure to infected cat feces.

    23. external insults

      Brain injuries

    24. etiology

      The cause of a disease or disorder.

    25. heterogeneous

      Diverse

    26. abrogates

      Prevents

    27. electron microscopy

      A technique that uses a beam of electrons as a light source and has a magnification of up to 1,000,000x (a light microscope's magnification power is 1,500x).

    28. immunocytochemistry

      A microscopy technique for seeing cellular components by targeting them in tissue samples.

      https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunocytochemistry

    29. organoids

      An organ bud (miniature organ) that is anatomically similar to the organ it models. Organoids are used to study organ development and function.

    30. neurospheres

      A three-dimensional culture system made up of free-floating clusters of neural stem cells. They are used to study neural precursor cells in vitro.

    31. microcephaly

      An abnormally small head due to failure of the brain to grow sufficiently. It is associated with mental disability.

      The growth of the brain can be impaired by many genetic and environmental factors, including infections by viruses and genetic syndromes.

      ![] (http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/birthdefects/images/microcephaly-comparison-500px.jpg)

    32. Zika virus (ZIKV)

      An RNA virus transmitted by mosquitos and sexual interaction with a carrier.

      It was first isolated from the Zika Forest of Uganda in 1947. It was previously only known to occur in a narrow range in Africa and Asia. However, in 2015 there was a Zika outbreak in Brazil.

    1. nonparametrically

      Nonparametric statistical models are often used for data that is ranked.

    2. covariates

      A covariate is a variable that used in a regression analysis. It is a variable that might be responsible for the outcome of a study, or that might be interfering.

      Here, all of the additional variables added in each model were covariates (writing ability, gender, ethnicity, etc.)

    3. Matthew effect

      The Matthew Effect can be summarized as "the rich get richer and the poor get poorer." It describes the idea that benefits are distributed unevenly, and that those who already have the benefits will continue to accumulate them while those without will not have the chance.

      In scientific publication, the Matthew Effect refers to the phenomenon where researchers who are established publish more often simply because they are established (and regardless of the quality of their work).

    4. regression

      Regression is a measure of the relation between the mean value of one variable and corresponding values of other variables. There are different types of regression, all of which are used to identify trends in data.

    5. Poisson regressions

      A Poisson regression is a form of regression analysis where we have a random variable, which is equal to the number of events over a period of time if these events are independent and occur at a constant speed.

    6. principal investigator (PI),

      A principal investigator (PI) is the holder of an independent grant administered by a university and the lead researcher for the grant project, usually in the sciences.

      The phrase is also often used as a synonym for "head of the laboratory" or "research group leader."

    7. institutional affiliation

      An applicant's institutional affiliation is the organization that has agreed to be the legal recipient of the grant. This organization can be a nonprofit, a university, or an employer.

    8. U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO)

      The United States Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO or Office) is an agency of the U.S. Department of Commerce which stores, classifies, and disseminates information on patents and gives grant patents for the protection of inventions and to register trademarks.

    9. PubMed

      PubMed is a database of medical and biological publications, created by the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). It is the free version of the database MEDLINE.

    10. standard deviation (SD)

      Standard deviation is a statistical measure that is used to describe how much variation there is in a data set. A high standard deviation means that the data is very spread out.

    11. “value-added.”

      Value-added is the amount by which the value of the product is increased. Here, it means by how much peer review increases new insights about the quality of grant applications.

    12. high-impact

      The impact factor (IF) is a numerical indicator of the "importance" of a scientific journal or article, calculated based on the number of citations and published articles.

    13. U.S. National Institutes of Health

      The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is an agency of the Department of Health and Human Services and the main agency of the U.S. government responsible for biomedical research and healthcare-related research.

    14. grants

      A grant is a money given to enterprises, organizations, and individuals for research, development, and education. Grants do not have to be returned, but most granting organizations require a report about the progress of the outcome.

    15. research project

      The Research Project (R01) is a type of grant awarded by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) that provides support for health-related research and development.

    16. peer-review

      Peer-review is the review process for scientific articles, research, or ideas by scientific experts in the same field.

  7. Oct 2016
    1. z, F, t, and χ2

      z, F, t and X2 test statistics are parameters that are calculated from a sample and compared with what is expected given the null hypothesis (that there is no effect in reality). The test statistic allows inferences on whether the data allows us to reject the null hypothesis and assume an effect is present.

    2. Cohen’s d

      Cohen's d is a measure for the size of an effect, used to report the standardized difference between two means. It is used to make a judgment if an effect is small (d>0.20), medium (d>0.50) or large (d>0.80).

    3. Wilcoxon signed-rank test

      The Wilcoxon signed-rank test is a statistical procedure that is used on paired data. The test compares the differences between paired data points, ranks the differences by size and considers the direction of the difference by retaining its sign (+ or -), to then allow an inference on whether the mean ranks differ or are the same.

    4. central tendency

      The central tendency of a distribution is captured by its central, or typical values. Central tendency is usually assessed with means, medians ("middle" value in the data) and modes (most frequent value in the data).

    5. nominal data

      Nominal data is the simplest form of data, since it implies no natural ordering between values. For instance, consider subject gender (male and female), which is a nominal variable: neither male nor female comes first, and neither male nor female is larger than the other.

    6. McNemar test

      McNemar's test is a statistical procedure for analyzing data that is measured on a nominal scale and where pairs of data points exist. In this example, we have pairs of data points when we consider that each original study and its replication belong together. The test assesses if the outcomes (proportion of significant vs. non-significant results) are the same in the original and the replication studies.

    7. confidence interval

      A confidence interval is the range of values in which the true value of the variable of interest would fall, if the experiment were to be repeated again and again. In the case of the 95% confidence interval, the true value would fall in this range in 95% of all cases. Confidence intervals are often referred to with the abbreviation "CI".

    8. two-tailed test

      A two-tailed test looks for a hypothesized relationship in two directions, not just one. For example, if we compare the means of two groups, the null hypothesis would be that the means are not different from each other. The alternative hypothesis for a two-tailed test would be that the means are different, regardless if the one is bigger or smaller than the other. For a one-tailed test, one would formulate a more specific alternative hypothesis, for instance that the mean of the first group is bigger than the mean of the second group.

    9. cognitive psychology

      Cognitive psychology is a subdiscipline of psychology that studies mental processes like perception, problem solving, attention or memory.

    10. within-subjects designs

      Within-subjects designs vary the predictor in question within each subject: each participant will complete all experimental procedures, in all different conditions. In contrast, between-subjects designs vary the predictor in question between the subjects: each participant completes only one experimental condition.

      For example, if a study wanted to test how eating an apple or eating a banana impacts the performance in a subsequent math test, a within-subjects design would have all participants first eat one fruit and complete a test, and then eat the other fruit and complete an equivalent test. A between-subjects design would have half of the participants eat an apple and complete the test, and the other half of the participants eat a banana and complete the test. Some questions are better suited to be studied with a within-subjects design, others are better studied with a between-subjects design.

    11. covaries

      Covariation indicates how two variables change together, and is the basis needed to calculate a correlation.

    12. predictors

      Predictors are variables that could affect an outcome of interest.

    13. null hypothesis

      The null hypothesis is the assumption that a certain effect does not exist in reality, and that any observations of this effect in data is due to error.

    14. citation impact

      Citation impact refers to the importance of an effect deduced from how much of the subsequent body of literature refers to and builds on it by including a reference to the original paper.

    15. functional magnetic resonance imaging

      Functional magnetic resonance imaging is a procedure that detects the activity of areas in the brain by measuring blood flow.

    16. macaques

      Macaques are a type of monkeys.

    17. autism

      Autism is a mental disorder characterized by difficulties with of social communication and interactions, as well as restricted and repetitive behaviors.

    18. F test

      An F-test is a statistical procedure that assesses if the variance of two distributions are significantly different from each other.

    19. t test

      A t-test is a statistical procedure that assesses if the means of two distributions are significantly different from each other.

    20. a priori

      A priori means something was deduced or determined from theoretical considerations, before collecting data.

    21. selection biases

      Selection bias here refers to systematic error in the way studies are included or excluded in the sample of studies which would be replicated. An unbiased selection would be truly random, such that the sample of studies used for replication would be representative of the population of studies available.

    22. false positive

      A false positive is a result that erroneously indicates an effect exists: although the data suggests an effect exists, in reality, the effect does not exist.

    23. false negative

      A false negative is a result that erroneously indicates no effect exists: although the data do not suggest that an effect exists, in reality, this effect does exist.

    24. bias

      Bias refers to a systematic error or a process that does not give accurate results.

    25. effect sizes

      The size of an effect allows us to say whether an effect is big or small, compared to other effects.

    26. effects

      An effect is an observed phenomenon, where differences in one circumstance lead to observable differences in an outcome.

    27. statistically significant results

      Results are referred to as statistically significant when we find the result convincing because it is extremely unlikely to find this data if the effect did not really exist.

  8. Sep 2016
    1. intraperitoneal

      An injection into the belly of a mouse that avoids hitting any internal organs.

    2. hAPP-nontransgenic mice

      Mice that do not have the hAPP gene (normal mice).

    3. aberrant

      Wrong or deviating from the norm.

    4. neurites

      Any extension of a neuron, like an axon or a dendrite.

    5. dystrophic

      Wasting away.

    6. punctae

      Dots or points.

    7. proteolysis

      The breakdown of a protein by enzymes.

    8. hippocampal homogenates

      Ground up or processed tissue.

    9. effectors

      A molecule that binds to a protein and changes its function.

    10. etiology

      Cause or origin.

    11. spatial learning

      Learning (and remembering) where something is in 3D space.

      In this case, the mouse cannot see the platform hidden under the surface of the water. It has to remember from previous trials where it's located.

    12. Morris water maze

      A maze in which mice learn the location of a platform. The platform is visible at first and then hidden under the water surface once the mice learn its location.

      This type of maze requires the hippocampus, one of the first parts of the brain to become damaged in Alzheimer’s disease.

      See a video about the Morris Water maze here:

      http://www.jove.com/video/897/morris-water-maze-experiment

      https://youtu.be/leHLL4vcbCc

    13. familial AD mutations

      Specific genetic mutations that cause Alzheimer’s disease.

      These mutations are very rare and only account for about 2% of all cases of Alzheimer’s disease. If an individual has one of these rare mutations s/he is destined to get Alzheimer’s disease (100% chance of developing Alzheimer's).

    14. haplotypes

      A set of genes inherited together.

      In this case, the authors discuss the idea that several genes related to the tau protein seem to affect the probability that a person will develop Alzheimer’s disease later in life.

    15. posttranslationally

      This means that molecular changes are made to tau proteins after they are being made.

      Some types of abnormal tau appear in cases of Alzheimer’s disease.

    16. Alzheimer's disease

      Alzheimer's disease is the most common type of dementia. It's a disease of aging in which the proteins amyloid-β and tau build up or aggregate in the brain, causing neurons to die.

      Amyloid-β proteins build up into clumps called plaques, and abnormal tau proteins fall off of their microtubules, which kills the neurons. These tau proteins later aggregate into clumps called tangles.

      Symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease include memory and cognitive problems, and patients eventually die from the disorder.

    17. amyloid-β peptide

      This peptide consists of a strand of up to about 40 amino acids that are the main component of the amyloid plaques found in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.

    18. excitotoxicity

      A process in which neurons are damaged or die as a result of too much stimulation (or excitation, hence "excito-toxicity").

      For example, excitotoxicity can occur from a seizure.

    19. transgenic mice expressing human amyloid precursor protein

      Mice that have been genetically engineered to produce the amyloid precursor protein, which is thought to give rise to amyloid-β.

    20. endogenous

      Originating from within the body. In this case, "endogenous" refers to the tau proteins that occur naturally in the body of the mice.