5,090 Matching Annotations
  1. Jun 2016
    1. centrosomes

      A structure in animal cells that is involved in mitosis. During cell division, two centrosomes are located at opposite ends of the cell, and they extend fibers called microtubules that pull the chromosomes apart at anaphase. If there are more than two centrosomes, the chromosomes may not be evenly divided among daughter cells, which could lead to cell death or the development of tumors.

      Also, centrosomes are duplicated simultaneously with DNA during S phase. So, if there are more than two centrosomes, there is likely also an excess of DNA generated by extra rounds of replication.

    2. anaphase

      The critical point in cell division when the sister chromatids are physically pulled apart to opposite sides of the cell.

    3. stably transfected

      The authors incorporated foreign DNA into cells with the drug resistance gene. The resistance allows cells that contain the foreign DNA to survive treatment with the drug, while other cells will die.

    4. fibroblasts

      Connective tissue cells that produce the extracellular matrix and collagen, which hold tissues together and help repair tissue damage.

    5. transcriptional regulator

      A protein that can increase or decrease the expression of a particular gene in response to a signal. In this case, activated p53 increases the expression of p21.

    6. apoptosis

      Programmed cell death. In mature organisms, this mechanism eliminates unhealthy or damaged cells. During development, it removes unnecessary cells.

    7. genotypes

      The genetic makeup of a cell at the DNA level as opposed to "phenotypes," which are the observed traits of a cell or an organism.

    8. geneticin- or hygromycin-resistance gene

      This gene codes for a protein that provides resistance to a harmful drug, typically an antibiotic. Scientists can transfer this gene to new cells to make the cells resistant to a drug, allowing these cells to be selectively propagated.

    9. targeting vectors

      A targeting vector is a piece of foreign DNA that can be taken up by a cell. The goal is often to incorporate the sequence in the host cell genome.

    10. homologous recombination

      A process of exchanging sections of DNA between two similar DNA sequences that cells can use to repair broken DNA.

      In molecular biology, scientists can take advantage of this process to replace specific genes (targets) with modified DNA sequences.

    11. mitotic index

      A measure of the amount of cells in a population that are currently undergoing mitosis.

    12. microtubule

      Microtubules are tubular protein structures that are a component of the cell's skeleton (the cytoskeleton). They are also important for cell division, during which they pull sister chromatids apart in anaphase.

    13. nocodazole

      A drug that causes cells to arrest in M phase, right before cell division. It is often used in experiments to collect cells in M phase, either to study mitotic pathways or to make sure that all cells in a culture are synchronized in the same phase.

    14. interphase

      The nonmitotic portion of the cell cycle (G1, S, and G2 phases) during which a cell grows and replicates its DNA.

      Growth and replication are followed by division, the mitotic (or M) phase of the cycle.

    15. human colorectal cancer cell lines

      Researchers can take a sample of cells from a patient and grow them in a dish. These cells are called a "line," and can be repeatedly grown and studied for years.

      Many different lines are commercially available for researchers. Because each line comes from a different person and a different tissue type, they will all have different characteristics. Particularly with cancer cell lines, there will often be mutations in important genes, so it is critical to select a line that is appropriate for what you are studying.

    16. “licensing factors”

      These are proteins that initiate DNA replication.

      Replication must occur once and only once during each cell cycle. Therefore, the licensing factors are tightly controlled (spatially and temporally) so that replicated DNA does not replicate a second time before cell division.

    17. G2-M arrest

      A stop in the cell cycle before the cell progresses to the M phase where mitosis takes place. This occurs as a result of the activation of a checkpoint at the end of G2.

    18. G1-S arrest

      A stop in the cell cycle before the cell progresses to the S phase where DNA is replicated. This occurs as a result of the activation of a checkpoint at the end of G1.

    19. checkpoints

      Checkpoints are specific points in the cell cycle at which the cell must confirm certain characteristics, such as its size or DNA content, before passing to the next phase. This is to ensure that cells do not replicate DNA or divide when major problems exist, such as DNA damage.

      As this paper explains, p53 plays a very important role in checkpoints.

    20. M phase

      Last phase of the cell cycle during which mitosis (cell division) occurs. The cell divides into two daughter cells that each have the same number of chromosomes.

    21. G1

      First gap phase of the cell cycle, between mitosis (M phase) and DNA replication (S phase). Cells typically grow in size during G1.

      A checkpoint toward the end of this phase ensures that the cell has no DNA damage to move on to the next phase (the S phase).

      "G" is short for "gap."

    22. S phase

      Phase of the cell cycle during which DNA replication (synthesis) occurs. "S" is short for "synthesis."

    23. cytokinesis

      Cytokinesis occurs during the M phase of the cell cycle and refers to the division of the cytoplasm during cell division.

    24. cyclin-dependent kinase

      Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) are important cell cycle regulators. Kinases are enzymes that add a phosphate to other proteins to activate or inhibit their function—a process known as phosphorylation.

      CDKs are always present in the cell but become active only when they are bound to other proteins called cyclins. Cyclins were originally identified as proteins whose concentration cycles up and down, depending on the phase of growth. Not all proteins in this class fluctuate in this manner. Regardless, the association of CDK-cyclin complexes regulates the progression through each phase like clockwork.

      Some additional regulatory proteins activate CDK-cyclin complexes, stimulating the cell cycle. Others inactivate CDK-cyclins or prevent their activation, which inhibits cell cycle progression. Among the inhibitory proteins are p53 and p21.

    25. p53

      p53 is an important protein that is inactivated in many cancers. p53 can sense DNA damage, and accordingly causes the cell cycle to arrest.

      The arrest of the cell cycle allows for the DNA to be repaired. Alternatively, p53 can initiate cell death, or apoptosis, in response to DNA damage.

    1. pial

      Pial is an adjective derived from"pia mater," the delicate, fibrous, and highly vascular membrane forming the innermost of the three coverings of the brain and spinal cord.

    2. Ncx-1–/–

      Na+/Ca2+ exchanger 1

    3. CSF-1R+

      Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor.

    4. recombination

      DNA recombination involves the exchange of genetic material either between multiple chromosomes or between different regions of the same chromosome.

    5. locus

      In genetics, a locus (plural loci) from the Latin word for "place" is the specific location of a gene, DNA sequence, or position on a chromosome.

    6. promoters

      In genetics, a promoter is a region of DNA that initiates transcription of a particular gene.

      Promoters are located near the transcription start sites of genes, on the same strand and upstream on the DNA (toward the 5' region of the sense strand).

    7. endogenous

      Endogenous means relating to or produced by metabolic synthesis in the body.

    8. tamoxifen

      Tamoxifen is an estrogen receptor antagonist.

    9. 1op/op

      The op/op (osteopetrotic) mutant mouse possesses an inactivating mutation in the colony-stimulating factor-1 (CSF-1) gene, which results in the absence of certain macrophages, including defective osteoclasts (macrophages of the bone), resulting in osteopetrosis.

      Osteopetrosis ("marble bone disease") is an extremely rare inherited disorder whereby the bones become thick, but their increased size does not improve their strength. Instead, their disordered architecture results in weak and brittle bones.

    10. gated

      A gate is a numerical or graphical boundary that can be used to define the characteristics of cells.

    11. neuroepithelium

      During embryogenesis, the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm) are formed, from which all body tissues will later develop.

      Neuroepithelium is the part of the embryonic ectoderm that gives rise to the nervous system .

    12. cephalic mesenchyme

      Cephalic means relating to the head or the head end of the body. From the Latin "cephalicus," and from the Greek "kephalikos," meaning head.

      The head mesenchyme is a type of undifferentiated connective tissue, which primarily originates from a mixture of cranial neural crest and head mesoderm cells.

      These cells eventually give rise to the skeletal elements (skull and facial bones), connective tissue, and musculature of the vertebrate head.

    13. yolk sac

      Yolk sac is a membranous sac of most vertebrates that encloses the yolk. It is attached in most animals (as in humans) through the yolk stalk with the intestinal cavity of the embryo, and is supplied with blood vessels that transport nutritive yolk products to the developing embryo.

    14. extra-embryonic

      Located outside an embryo.

    15. radio-resistant

      Being able to survival high radiation levels.

    16. Parabiotic mice
    17. bone marrow chimera

      Bone marrow is the soft, organic, spongelike material in the cavities of bones. It is a network of blood vessels and special connective tissue fibers that hold together a composite of fat and blood-producing cells.

      Its chief function is to manufacture blood cells including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

    18. leukocytes

      Leukocytes encompass all white blood cells, including monocytes, lymphocytes, granulocytes, and macrophages

    19. congenic

      Congenic bone marrow chimeras are mice that are genetically identical with the exception of one gene.

    20. hematopoiesis

      Hematopoeisis refers to the process of production and differentiation of all blood cell types .

    21. hematopoietic waves

      A hematopoietic wave is an influx of cells that can originate from different sites of hematopoiesis such as the yolk sac, the fetal liver, and the bone marrow, or from the same site at different times under certain conditions (e.g., inflammation).

    22. perinatal

      Time immediately before or after birth.

    23. mononuclear phagocyte

      As opposed to polynuclear phagocytes (ex.: neutrophils), monocytes, macrophages. and dendritic cells have one nucleus and are called mononuclear phagocytes.

    24. ontogenically

      Ontogeny refers to the complete developmental history of an individual organism, or, here in this study, of a cell population.

    25. myeloid progenitors

      Myeloid cells are differentiated descendants of common myeloid progenitors of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. They include granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, and dendritic cells.

      Initially, the adjective“myeloid” defined cells related or derived from the bone marrow. However, it also defines cells that are not “lymphoid,” i.e., cells related to lymphocytes that include T and B cells, as well as NK cells and innate lymphoid cells.

    26. In vivo

      Performed in a living organism, from the Latin for "within the living."

    27. lineage tracing

      Lineage tracing is the identification of all progeny, i.e., descendants, of a defined cell population or a single cell.

    28. homeostasis

      Homeostasis is the state of balance or equilibrium from the Greek "homœos," meaning "similar," and "stasis," meaning "standing still."

    29. hematopoietic

      Hematopoietic cells are all blood cells that derive from hematopoietic stem cells present in the adult bone marrow.

    30. pathogenesis

      Pathogenesis refers to the cause or origin of the pathology of a disease.

    31. macrophages

      Macrophages are a type of white blood cell.

      As scavengers of the immune system, macrophages engulf and destroy self-antigens, foreign pathogens (such as bacteria and viruses), cancer cells, and other cellular debris via a process called phagocytosis.

    32. Microglia

      Microglia are a type of glial cell that are the resident macrophages of the brain and spinal cord, and thus act as the first and main form of active immune defense in the central nervous system.

    1. cerebral vasculature

      The cerebral vasculature is the collection of blood vessels that supplies blood to the brain.

      There are two types of cerebral vasculature: anterior and posterior, which supply blood to the front and back portions of the brain, respectively.

      The arteries carry oxygenated blood with glucose and other nutrients; whereas the veins carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart.

    2. microvascular network

      The microvascular network is the vasculature consisting of small blood vessels (diameter less than 100 microns). A large amount of oxygen is supplied throughout the brain by these networks.

    3. SMAD phosphorylation cascade

      SMAD proteins are signaling molecules located in the cytoplasm of a cell.

      Phosphorylation of SMAD proteins indicates the activation of these proteins.

      Activated SMADs lead to a cascade of signaling events for gene transcription in the nucleus to regulate diverse biological functions.

    4. BMP/TGF-β family

      The BMP/TGF-beta signaling pathway has an important role in cell growth, differentiation, and development of biological systems.

    5. pericytes

      Pericytes are contracting cells that wrap around endothelial cells in the blood vessels. These cells are capable of constricting blood vessels.

    6. green fluorescent protein (GFP)

      Green fluorescent protein is a fluorescent protein marker used to tag a protein of interest, allowing visualization of movement of the protein of interest.

    7. endothelial progenitors

      Endothelial progenitors are a rare population of cells in the blood that give rise to endothelial cells. Endothelial cells form the lining of blood vessels.

    8. magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

      Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is a radiological imaging technique to observe the anatomy and physiology of the body. MRI uses magnetic fields and radiowaves (there is no ionizing radiation) to form images of the body.

      Currently, MRI is considered to be the better method (compared with CT scans) for brain imaging.

    9. angiograms

      Typically, an angiogram is an imaging test that uses x-rays to visualize blood vessels in the body. In this case the word "angiogram" is used to denote the 3D reconstruction of the z-stacks. They did not do x-rays.

    10. Cerebrovascular

      Cerebrovasculature refers to the blood vessels in the brain, especially the arteries that supply blood to the brain.

    11. improved olfactory behavior

      An increased sense of smell.

    12. interneurons

      There are three types of neurons in the central nervous system: sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons.

      Interneurons enable communication between sensory and motor neurons.

    13. rostral

      Rostral and caudal are directionality terms used for the brain.

      Rostral, or anterior, refers to the front end (near nose) and caudal, or posterior, refers to the back end.

    14. neuroblasts

      Neural stem cells differentiate into neuroblasts. A neuroblast is a dividing cell, which gives rise to a neuron.

    15. hippocampus

      The hippocampus is a C-shaped structure in the brain that functions for learning, memory, and spatial navigation.

      The dendate gyrus is a subsection of the hippocampus. Neurogenesis also occurs in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus.

    16. Ki67+cells, Sox2+ stem cells, and Olig2+ transit amplifying progenitors

      Ki67 is a cellular marker for proliferating cells.

      Sox2 is a transcription factor that marks stem cells.

      Olig2 is a transcription factor that is a marker for progenitor cells. Progenitor cells give rise to differentiated cells.

    17. coronal

      The brain can be sectioned into three different planes called coronal, sagittal, and horizontal/axial.

      Coronal sections are vertical dissections, similar to slices from a loaf of bread.

    18. subventricular zone (SVZ)

      The subventricular zone is located in the walls of the lateral ventricles. This zone is one of the two main sites of neurogenesis in the adult mammalian brain. The lateral ventricles contain cerebrospinal fluid and are part of the ventricular system in the body.

    19. parabiosis

      Parabiosis means “living beside.” Parabiosis can be between animals of different strains or different weight, age, or any other parameter.

      In this study, parabiosis is the process of sewing an old mouse and a young mouse together so they share one vascular system.

    20. heterochronic

      Heterochronic parabiosis is when parabiosis is performed between animals of different ages. Isochronic is same age.

    21. chemokines

      Chemokines are chemical signaling molecules secreted by cells that induce changes in signaling pathways of another neighboring cell(s).

    22. neuroplasticity

      'Re-wiring' of neuronal synaptic connections in oder to adapt to environmental changes.

    23. neurogenic potential

      Neurogenic potential is the ability to generate mature neurons for the process of neurogenesis.

    24. proliferation and differentiation

      Proliferation refers to the continuous division of a cell, and differentiation is the process where a stem cell acquires a specialized cell fate.

    25. neurovascular

      Neurovascular diseases occur from sudden blockage of the normal blood flow to the brain or deterioration of the vasculature.

      Examples include ischemic strokes or brain aneurysms.

    26. neurodegenerative

      Neurodegenerative diseases result primarily in the loss of function and death of neurons leading to progressive loss of structure in a region of the brain.

      Examples include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Parkinson’s, and Huntington disease.

    27. vascular remodeling

      Vascular remodeling is the process of altering the 3D structure and architecture of blood vessels.

    28. neurogenesis

      Generation of neurons from neural stem cells and neural progenitor cells.

    29. neural stem cell

      Neural stem cells are cells that are able to self-renew, and are capable of differentiating into any cell type in the central nervous system.

    30. neurogenic niche

      A specialized microenvironment favorable to the regulation of stem cells in the nervous system.

    31. central nervous system

      The central nervous system is a complex network of nerve tissues that control functions of the body. It consists of the brain and spinal cord.

  2. May 2016
    1. cellular materials

      Cellular materials (materials with a significant amount of porosity) present a number of properties (namely low weight, high sound absorption, crashworthiness, high permeability, thermal properties) that make them suitable for a large range of applications.

    2. “mechanical metamaterials”

      Metamaterials are a class of objects whose properties are related to the geometrical properties of the constituting structure and not to the mechanical properties of the constituting material.

      These metamaterials present properties not obtained with regular materials.

    3. buckling-dominated failure

      Buckling is a phenomenon of instability: A slender structure submitted to a compressive load can bend and deform in the direction perpendicular to the compression axis.

      The structure will then be submitted to a bending load rather than a compression load.

    4. “ductile”

      Ductile is the opposite of brittle. A ductile material can deform plastically without breaking when subjected to a load.

    5. brittle

      A brittle material submitted to a stress breaks without significant deformation.

    6. tetrakaidecahedron

      A tetrakaidecahedron, also called tetradecahedron (from the Greek words tetra, four, and deca, 10) is a polyhedron with 14 faces.

    7. hysteresis

      A material is said to present hysteresis if its behavior depends on the current loads applied and on the history of the past loads.

      For example, a material that presents hysteresis will not sustain the same stresses if the strains are increasing or decreasing: The stress-strain curve will present a loop.

    8. Uniaxial compression studies

      This parameter characterizes the ability of a material to withstand loads tending to reduce its size in one dimension.

      It is defined as the maximum force per unit area of a material to withstand loadings before it fails plastically (i.e., in a permanent and irreversible way) or fractures.

    9. their Young’s modulus E

      Young's modulus is a parameter used to characterize the stiffness of a material.

      It is defined as the ratio between the stress (force per unit area) and the strain (displacement normalized by the initial length) and it is expressed in Pa.

    10. sintering

      Sintering is the process of forming a solid mass of material by heating or pressuring particles of this material without reaching the melting point.

    11. atomic layer deposition (ALD)

      Atomic Layer Deposition is a method to deposit a thin film on a substrate. It consists of exposing the surface of the substrate to gaseous species.

    12. electroless nickel plating

      Electroless nickel plating is a chemical technique to deposit a layer of nickel alloy on a solid piece made of another metal or of plastic.

    13. Scanning electron microscopy

      Scanning electron microscopy is a technique used to image the surface of a sample with a high resolution. (The resolution is in the nanometer scale.)

    14. three-dimensional CAD model

      The first step to manufacture a piece with 3D printing techniques consists of designing a numerical or analytical model of it.

      Software called computer-aided design software can help create a 3D model of the desired piece.

    15. photomask

      A photomask defines the area that will be illuminated. For the stereolithography technique, this area corresponds to a 2D cross section of the object.

      To get the complete 3D object, different photomasks must be generated for each slice, each 2D cross-section.

    16. spatial light modulator

      A spatial light modulator is a device that allows one to modify the characteristics (phase, intensity, or polarization) of a light beam.

      In this article, the spatial light modulator is used to define the mask, the area that will be illuminated.

    17. photosensitive

      The photosensitivity is the ability of some materials to react to the light. In this example, when the liquid polymer resin is exposed to light, it cures and becomes solid.

    18. rapid prototyping methods

      Rapid prototyping is a family of techniques used to quickly create models and prototypes, using 3D computer-aided design data. The most "famous" technique is 3D printing.

    19. tessellation

      The tessellation of a surface consists of tiling this surface using one or more geometric patterns (called tiles) without overlaps or gaps.

    20. uniaxial compressive loading

      Loading a piece of material with an uniaxial compressive load means that the load applied tends to reduce the size of the sample in one specific direction.

    21. fcc structure

      FCC structure means a face-centered cubic structure. A structure is said to have an FCC architecture if its joints are located on the eight corners of a cube and in the center of each of the eight faces of the cube.

    22. aspect ratios

      The aspect ratio is a parameter used to define the shape of a structure. For example, the aspect ratio of an image is the ratio of the width to the height.

      Here, for the struts, the aspect ratio refers to the ratio of the length of the strut to its diameter.

    23. Maxwell’s criterion

      Maxwell suggested a rule to set out the condition of rigidity for a cell structure with b struts and j frictionless joints.

    24. frictionless joints

      A joint designates the connection between two struts. This connection is supposed to be frictionless, which means that there is no force resisting the relative motions of the two connected parts.

    25. struts

      A strut is a structural component designed to resist longitudinal compression. Struts are the rod parts Fig1 A, B, C.

    26. critical features

      The critical features, in this case, refer to the dimensions of the smallest controllable feature size of the structure (for example, the length or the diameter of a strut).

    27. face-centered cubic

      A structure is said to have a face-centered cubic face if its joints are located on the eight corners of a cube and in the center of each of the eight faces of the cube.

    28. stretch-dominated

      Cellular materials can be classified in two categories: the bend-dominated structures and the stretch-dominated structures.

      If a compressive loading is applied to a bend-dominated cellular structure, the cell's edges bend. If a tensile loading is applied to a stretch-dominated cellular structure, the material responds by an elastic stretching of its struts.

      If a compressive loading is applied to a stretch-dominated cellular structure, no bending deformation exists in structural members. The material responds by an elastic stretching of its struts.

    29. fracture toughness

      The fracture toughness is a property of a material that describes the ability of this material to resist fracture.

    30. loading directions

      Generally, an object does not behave the same way when a load is applied to it along a direction or when the load is applied along another direction. Thus it is important to know what the loading direction is.

      This is especially true among previous works, such as structural honeycombs and sandwich panels.

    31. bending

      Bending = flexure. It describes the way a slender structure behaves when a load is applied perpendicularly to its longitudinal axis.

    32. stochastic

      Stochastic means random, unorganized.

    33. bulk value of the solid constituent material property

      The material properties (Young's modulus, yield strength) of a solid with a high porosity are not the same as those of a solid bar of the same material but with no porosity.

      The properties of the material with no porosity, the intrinsic properties of the material, are called bulk properties.

    34. yield strength

      The yield strength is the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically.

      Below this value, the deformation of the material is elastic: once the applied stress is removed, the material returns to its initial shape. Above this value, the deformation becomes permanent and irreversible.

    35. Young’s modulus

      Young's modulus is a parameter used to characterize the stiffness of a material. It is defined as the ratio between the stress (force per unit area) and the strain (displacement normalized by the initial length) and it is expressed in Pa.

    36. stiffness

      Stiffness is a parameter describing the rigidity of a given piece of material, i.e., the way this piece resists deformation when a force is applied to it.

      An object with low stiffness (such as a piece of rubber) will exhibit large deformation in response to an applied force. On the other hand, a material with high stiffness (like a metallic piece) will deform less if the same force is applied.

      Stiffness-to-weight ratio means the stiffness per unit mass density. This parameter characterizes the mechanical efficiency of a material.

    37. cellular materials

      Assembly of basic cells (either open or closed) with solid edges and faces packed together to form a material with specific properties.

    38. microstereolithography

      Stereolithography is a method of 3D printing. Objects are printed one layer at a time by curing a photosensitive resin with a UV source.

      Microstereolithography is the same technique applied to fabricate structures with microscale feature resolutions.

    39. microlattices

      A microlattice is a connected network of struts of microscopic size.

    40. connectivity

      The connectivity characterizes the degree by which each individual structural element is connected to others.

      For example, a connectivity of eight means each node inside the unit cell is connected with eight structural filaments.

    41. isotropic

      An isotropic object is an object whose properties are the same whatever the considered direction.

    42. microarchitected materials

      Microarchitected materials are composed of elements of microscopic size organized in a designed topology.

    43. mechanical properties

      The mechanical properties of a material are indices used to describe the way this material behaves when submitted to a load.

    1. against invading pathogens

      Check out ImmiFlex's video on Neutrophil Phagocytosis

      https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z_mXDvZQ6dU

    2. rapid shift from a symmetric morphology into a polarized form

      A rapid process that involves change in the distribution of cell surface receptors on leukocytes. This aids in the process of extravasation into the tissue from blood vessels.

    3. infarcted hemisphere

      Death of tissue when blood and oxygen supply gets blocked is an infarction. In this case, the authors observed that tissue death/infarction in the brain was decreased when neutrophils were depleted.

    4. permanent occlusion of the middle cerebral artery

      The middle cerebral artery is one of the major blood vessels that supplies blood to the brain, occlusion of this would create loss of blood to the brain and thus mimic stroke. This is a method to induce stroke experimentally.

    5. ischemic injury

      Injury when blood supply to tissues being restricted leads to shortage of oxygen in the tissue, such as during a stroke, where blood supply to brain is restricted.

    6. pulmonary microcirculation

      Lung blood flow.

    7. vascular inflammation

      Inflammation of the blood vessels.

    8. pathogenic inflammation

      Inflammatory response to a pathogen or an insult. In this paper's context, it also refers to injury-induced inflammation.

    9. mislocalization

      The original distribution of these receptors was disturbed in the PSGL-1–deficient mice.

    10. chemokine receptor CXCR2

      CXCR-2 is a receptor that binds to interleukin 8 (called KC in mice; secreted signaling proteins molecule). This activates neutrophils. Chemokines are secreted signaling molecules that attract cells to an area because of its gradient (mimicking chemoattraction).

    11. cannot propagate outside-in signals because of the absence of the cytoplasmic domain

      Cytoplasmic domain is the part of the receptor that is present inside the surface of cells. On stimulation at the surface, the transduction of signal occurs through the cytoplasmic domain/tail that further instructs the cell.

    12. Rho-GTPase

      Guanine nucleotide exchange factor belonging to the family with Rac GTPases that functions in a similar manner to Rac GTPases, described earlier.

    13. intravascular behavior

      The behavior of the neutrophils in the vasculature. In this study, this includes the mobility of the neutrophils.

    14. vessel lumen

      Inside space of a blood vessel.

    15. a guanine nucleotide exchange factor of Rac GTPases

      Rac GTPases are a class of G proteins that respond to a stimulus and transmit a signal from outside of a cell to its inside. They are usually in an "off" or inactive state when bound to a molecule called GDP (two phosphate groups).

      Dock-2 helps Rac GTPasq2es in the exchange of GDP to GTP (three phosphate groups) so that the GTPase is now in the "on" or active state to transmit signal.

    16. CD62L-enriched uropod

      CD62L is a type of selectin found on lymphocytes. It is required for lymphocytes to move from circulation through the endothelial cell lining into tissue. CD62L on lymphocytes bind to ligands on endothelial cells, particularly those present in lymph nodes, to facilitate this movement.

    17. glycosylated

      Glycosylation is the process of adding a sugar molecule to a protein or lipid.

    18. uropod

      The uropod is defined as the tail end of a cell.

    19. lamellipodia

      Motile cells develop a leading front that is made of actin filaments. Actin is a protein that is crucial for cell motility. Lamellipodia behaves like the engine of a motile cell pulling it forward.

    20. Neutrophils

      Neutrophils are also called white blood cells. These are the first cells that respond to an infection.

      They are normally found in the blood vessels, but on chemical induction owing to an infection, they migrate out of the blood vessels and into the site of infection.

    21. PSGL-1

      Interaction between neutrophils protruding into the blood vessel and platelets inside the blood vessel via PSGL-1 initiated a signaling cascade that allowed neutrophils to redistribute their cell surface receptors, polarize, and eventually migrate.

    22. polarized morphology

      For mobility of cells, polarization is a process that marks a cell with a front and tail end. The two ends usually differ in the arrangement of proteins (receptors) on the cell surface.

      Thus, polarization of cells usually results in the redistribution of receptors.

    1. hippocampal networks

      Connections between brain cells (neurons) in the hippocampus.

      The hippocampus is a seahorse-shaped structure that is associated with the formation of new memories. Damage to the hippocampus results in an inability to form new memories (like in the movie Memento).

      Click here to learn more about the hippocampus

    2. sleep neurophysiology

      Brain activity during sleep - for example, sleep spindles.

    3. rapid-eye-movement (REM) duration

      The length of time spent in rapid-eye-movement (REM) sleep (the stage of sleep often associated with dreaming).

    4. slow waves

      A pattern of brainwave activity represented by slower, rhythmic activity.

      Slow waves occur most often during deep sleep and are thought to play a role in consolidation.

    5. sleep spindles

      A pattern of brainwave activity represented by bursts of fast rhythmic activity.

      Sleep spindles are not well understood but are thought to help coordinate information transfer between different areas of the brain. They may play a role in transforming memories into more permanent, long-term storage.

    6. systems-level consolidation

      Systems-level consolidation specifically refers to the process of memory stabilization that involves multiple brain regions, takes a longer time, and results in more permanent long-term memory (as opposed to synaptic consolidation which occurs more immediately after learning).

      Click here for more information on the neurological processes of memory stabilization

    7. procedural

      Procedural memories are memories for skills (e.g. riding a bike or hitting a baseball).

      When you have learned a skill, you are generally unable to consciously describe the specific knowledge that you've gained.

      Click here for more information

    8. out-group members

      People who are not part of the group being preferred (the in-group). If in one context, the group of individuals being preferred is a group of White individuals, then out-group members would be all other individuals.

    9. counterstereotype information

      Information that goes against the stereotype - in this case information that pairs Black with positive items and women with math and science.

    10. social biases

      A tendency to generalize about members of a group or to attribute certain characteristics to one group over another. These preferences and attributions can be conscious or unconscious.

      Click here to learn more about how biases have become more subtle in the last century.

    1. emotional contagion

      The tendency to feel and express emotions similar to and influenced by those of others.

    2. Pro-social behavior

      Voluntary behavior designed to help others.

    3. conspecific

      Of the same species.

    4. cagemate

      An animal that shares the same cage as another.

    5. Control conditions

      Experiments in which the variables are controlled so that the effects of varying one factor at a time may be observed.

    6. non–food-deprived

      These rats had regular access to food before the experiment

    7. empathic

      Communication of feelings, thoughts, or attitudes between individuals.

    1. Abstract

      An abstract is a short overview of the experiments and results found in a paper. In this case, the abstract outlines Hansen and colleagues' work on mapping forest cover changes across the globe through time.

      Science is interdisciplinary. Take a look at the authors who worked together on this project. Some of them are from remote sensing fields at various universities, whereas others are computer scientists and engineers at Google.

      Authors:

      Matthew C. Hansen (remote sensing scientist at University of Maryland, and associate team member of NASA's MODIS Land Science Team)

      Peter V. Potapov (remote sensing scientist at University of Maryland)

      R. Moore (Google)

      M. Hancher (Google)

      S. A. Turudanova (University of Maryland)

      A. Tyukavina (University of Maryland)

      D. Thau (Google)

      S.V. Stehman (Syracuse University)

      S. J. Goetz (Woods Hole Research Center)

      T. R. Loveland (U.S. Geological Survey)

      A. Kommareddy (South Dakota University)

      A. Egorov (South Dakota University)

      L. Chini (University of Maryland)

      C. O. Justice (University of Maryland)

      J.R.G. Townshend (University of Maryland)

      Also, if you are interested in taking a closer look at the results, the data from this paper are featured here.

    1. ecological

      Ecology is the scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment. It considers the relationships between organisms of the same species, organisms of different species, and the nonliving, chemical and physical components of their environment.

    2. pharmacologically

      Through the use of a drug, or a molecule that has a biological effect on the cells, tissues, or organs of an organism.

    3. Coffea

      A genus of flowering plants whose seeds (coffee beans) are used to make coffee.

    4. Citrus

      A genus of flowering plants including oranges, lemons and limes.

    5. sucrose

      A naturally occurring carbohydrate commonly known as table sugar.

    6. potentiated

      To increase the power or effect of something. Often used in reference to the effect of a drug.

    7. mushroom body neurons

      A pair of structures in the brain of insects known to play a role in learning and developing memories of smells.

      Picture: Drosophila Mushroom Bodies

    8. caffeine

      A drug that acts as a stimulant of the Central Nervous System found in common beverages like coffee, tea, and some sodas.

      Picture: 3D Structure of Caffeine_3D_ball.png)

    9. olfactory

      Relating to the sense of smell.

    10. antagonist

      A substance that interferes with the activity of another. In this case, it blocks the activation of adenosine receptors.

    11. bitter taste threshold

      The amount of a substance at which the taste buds are able to detect its bitter taste.

    12. cognitive performance

      The ability to acquire and then use knowledge.

    13. floral nectar and pollen

      Though both are commonly associated with honey bees, the nectar and pollen are two very different things.

      Nectar is a sugar-rich liquid produced by flowering plants in order to attract pollinators like honey bees. The more pollinators visit a flower, the more nectar it produces. Nectar is most commonly known as the sugar source for the honey produced by bees.

      Pollen is the reason why flowering plants produce nectar in the first place. Pollen is a powder that carries the male sperm cells of a seed plant to the stigma of another flower. There, it can make its way to the female reproductive organ of the flower, where fertilization will occur. This is the process by which flowering plants reproduce.

      However, pollen can't move on its own; that's where pollinators like honey bees come in. When a pollinator comes to a flower to drink its nectar, the flower's pollen gets stuck on the pollinator, which then carries it to another flower.

    14. significantly

      When scientists use the word "significant," they don't necessarily mean to say that something is particularly important or noteworthy.

      "Significant" used this way is a specific statistical term that indicates that something is unlikely to have arisen simply by chance.

      Since in this context the authors found that the concentration was NOT significantly different, that means that the concentrations were the same between genera, and any differences seen were most likely due to chance rather than due to some systematic process.

    15. If caffeine confers a selective advantage

      That is, if caffeine makes these plants more "fit," or more likely to survive and reproduce, thereby successfully passing on their genes to the next generation of plants.

    16. concentrations

      In chemistry, a measure of the amount of dissolved substance per unit of volume.

    17. mM.

      Millimolar, or millimoles per liter - a unit of concentration.

    18. logistic regression

      In statistics, a regression analysis is a method for estimating relationships among variables.

      It helps you understand how one variable (the dependent variable) changes when another variable (the independent variable) is changed, while all other variables remain constant.

      This type of analysis is often used for prediction or forecasting.

      Logistic regression is a regression analysis where the dependent variable is categorical. This means that it does not have a numerical value, for example a study participant's eye color or blood type.

      See this video for more information on how logistic regression works.

    19. Z = –1.09

      A Z-Score is a statistical measurement of the number of standard deviations an observation is above the mean. (To learn more about standard deviations, see here)

      Thus, Z-score of 0 means the observation is the same as the mean, a positive Z-score tells you the observation fell that many standard deviations above the mean, and a negative score tells it fell that many standard deviations below the mean.

      So in this case, a Z score of -1.09 tells us that the observation fell 1.09 standard deviations below the mean.

      See here to learn more about how Z-scores are calculated.

    20. P = 0.272

      When you perform a statistical test, a p-value helps you determine whether or not your results are significant. A p-value can be calculated by several different statistical tests.

      A very small p-value (usually less than or equal to 0.05, though this varies depending on the field of study) indicates that there is strong evidence that the results were not due to chance. Therefore, the results are significant.

      A large p-value (usually larger than 0.05) indicates that there is weak evidence that the results were not due to chance, and therefore the results are not considered significant.

      In this case, the p-value is 0.272. As this is much greater than 0.05, the median caffeine concentrations in both genera are not considered significantly different.

    21. adenosine receptor

      Adenosine receptors are proteins that, when they come into contact with the molecule adenosine, play an important role in cellular signaling.

      Adenosine receptors in the brain regulate the release of neurotransmitters, chemicals that send messages from neurons to other cells.

    22. sensilla

      Sensilla are little hair-like sensory organs that help insects detect a number of different chemical and mechanical stimuli, like smells or touch.

    23. concomitantly

      Concurrently; existing or occurring at the same time.

    24. foraging

      i.e., while looking for food.

    25. action as an adenosine receptor antagonist

      When adenosine binds to its receptors in the brain, neural activity slows down. This has a number of effects, including dilating the blood vessels in your brain and making you fall asleep.

      When caffeine binds to these same receptors, it takes the place that adenosine would normally fill, but it doesn't slow neural activity. This makes it harder for you to fall asleep.

      Any substance that blocks the normal activity of another, like caffeine blocks the activity of adenosine in this case, is called an "antagonist."

    26. hippocampal

      The hippocampus is the region of the human brain (also present in many other vertebrates) that is important for spatial navigation and for processing information from short-term to long-term memory.

      Fun fact: the name "hippocampus" come from the Greek "hippos" (horse) and "kampos" (sea monster) - the scientists who first named the hippocampus thought its shape very closely resembled a seahorse!

    27. long-term potentiation

      Long-term potentiation is thought to be one of the key cellular processes behind learning and memory.

      "Synaptic plasticity" is a term used in neurobiology to refer to the ability of synapses, the structure that allows neurons to send signals to each other, to change their strength. That is to say that they can change how strong or weak the signals being passed between neurons are. Memories are thought to be encoded by these changes in synaptic strength.

      Long-term potentiation is the persistent, long-lasting strengthening of these synapses. It's one of the processes underlying synaptic plasticity and has been shown to be required for the formation of memories, though scientists are still not completely clear on how that happens.

      See here to learn more about long-term potentiation and synaptic plasticity.