people can often miss large changes in their visual fields if they are focused or distracted on something else.

cues of what one should do with the objects.

a perspective slightly above looking down

i reaaalllly think i should be doing a glossary list.

A laboratory strain of mice useful for studying cancer and immunology.

The process by which antigen-presenting cells uptake antigenic molecules from their surroundings, so that they may display them on their surface.

The process of exposing T cells to molecular signatures of disease through displaying them on the surface of antigen-presenting cells.

Outside of the living organism. In ex vivo experiments, cells originate in an organism, are extracted and modified, and then can be reintroduced.

Refers to the collection of recyclables including glass, paper, and plastic, all in the same recycling bin.

Refers to the range of garbage materials that are discarded as unwanted and useless. Landfills are often used as solid waste management systems.

One metric ton is equal to 1,000 kilograms or 2,204.6 pounds. One black rhinoceros weights approximately one metric ton. Source: Wikimedia

Another laboratory strain of mice useful for studying cancer and immunology.

Relating to or originating from mice.

An antibody able to bind two of its targets at once.

Two indicators of T cell activation. Once activated, T cells divide rapidly and produce a molecule called interleukin-2.

A related protein, usually with very similar sequence and structure.

A technique by which the genes in a cell are modified.

A family of binders to CD28. The two most important members are B7-1 and B7-2, mentioned below.

The target for T cell receptors is always a short peptide displayed on the surface of the cells. The protein responsible for displaying the peptides is called the major histocompatibility complex.

The receptor used by T cells to recognize specific antigens.

Molecules recognized by the immune system; signatures of disease.

Another receptor on the surface of T cells, with an opposite effect compared to CD28. Binding to CTLA-4 causes damping of T cell activation.

To become fully activated, T cells need to receive a signal through the CD28 receptor on their surface.

The ability of the immune system to recognize diseased or foreign cells.

This is an imaging technique that uses seismic waves generated by earthquakes and explosions to create computer-generated, three-dimensional images of Earth's interior. More information on how this technique works can be found here : https://www.iris.edu/hq/inclass/downloads/optional/269

These are very fine-grained particles which gradually accumulate on the ocean floor over time. These deposits comprise of both inorganic (by products of volcanic activities) and organic (marine plants and animals) matters.

Basalt is a type of igneous rocks which comprises 90% of all volcanic rocks. When these basalts are formed as a result of volcanic activities inside the ocean and away from the tectonic plate junctions, they are known as ocean island basalts.

A radiogenic isotope is formed by the process of radioactive decay. For instance, in this case, the stable isotope helium-4 is generated from the decay of a radioactive helium-4 nucleus.

Ancient reservoir in Earth's interior, composed of trapped gases that have not been removed.

A characterization technique used to study the structural and chemical properties of a material.

Hybridization is the combining or mixing up of atomic orbitals (an expected region of electron density around an atom) to form new hybrid orbitals that have geometries suitable to form bonds. Electrons can be found in s, p, d, and f orbitals. When an s orbital combines with three p orbitals, it results in four sp³ hybridized orbitals. Similarly, the combination of an s orbital with two p orbitals gives rise to three sp² hybrid orbitals.

Learn more about hybrid orbitals with these videos from Khan Academy.

The building block of graphite, which is used in pencil tips. Graphene is a one-atom-thick layer of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal lattice (with atoms arranged at the corners of a hexagon). The thickness of graphene is a million times less than that of a single human hair. Graphene is the world's first 2D material and the 2010 Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded for its discovery.

 Source: Wikimedia

A crystal is a 3D periodic array of atoms. Materials with regularly ordered arrays of components are termed crystalline materials.

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are rolled up cylinders of graphene sheets with diameters in the nanoscale. Based on geometry, they are termed as either single-walled (formed by rolling a single sheet of graphene) or multiwalled (multiple sheets of graphene) carbon nanotubes.

In a crystal, the atoms are arranged in a regular repeated pattern in a 3D lattice. A lattice is defined as the set of points representing these atomic positions.

Fullerene is the zero-dimensional form of graphitic carbon. The carbon atoms in fullerenes are arranged in closed shells.

Optical microscopes are instruments which use visible light and a system of lenses to produce magnified images of small objects.

A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms. In the case of graphene, each carbon atom forms covalent bonds with three neighboring atoms of hexagons in a plane, with atoms placed in corners of the hexagon. This type of in-plane bonding is called intralayer covalent bonding.

Quasicrystals are materials with perfect long-range order, but with no 3D translational periodicity of crystals.

A high-purity graphite material with a high degree of preferred crystallographic orientation.

A perfect crystal is an idealization and in real materials, atom arrangements do not follow perfect crystalline patterns. Crystal defects can be due to missing atoms, introduction of an impurity, broken crystal patterns along fault lines, or the joining of distinct crystal planes.

Wear is the progressive loss of materials from contacting surfaces relative in motion. The wear process results in the generation of debris—or particles—of various size, shape, color distributions, and chemical composition.

An imaging technique capable of generating high-resolution (nanometer-scale) images of a sample.

Refers to the components in a friction system. Here, the DLC-coated ball and the graphene-plus-nanodiamonds constitute the tribopair.

A nanomaterial structure with a spiral-wrapped geometry. Think of a scroll, or a roll of paper, on the nanoscale.

The CNO was injected into the peritoneum, the thin membrane that lines the walls of the abdominal cavity. It travels through the circulation system, crosses the blood-brain barrier, and affects its target cells.

A subregion of a part of the brain called the thalamus.

The PVT has been shown to have a broad range of function, including involvement in fear, learning, arousal, and feeding behaviors.

The axon is a long, thin part of the neuron that facilitates communication between neurons. Axons extend from the cell body of a neuron to other parts of the brain, allowing communication between different brain regions.

Materials made of long, repeating chains of molecules. The term polymer is often used to describe plastics, which are synthetically made, but natural polymers also exist.

As the most common plastic, polyethylene is used for everything from plastic bags to bulletproof vests. Polypropylene is commonly used in chip bags, microwave dishes, and bottle caps. Some fabric textiles and many water bottles are made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Plastics are notoriously persistent pollutants. It is estimated that a PET plastic water bottle will take anywhere from 100-500 years to degrade.

An economic system where waste and pollution are designed out, keeping products and services in closed loops or cycles. The circular economy is an alternative to a traditional linear economy in which products and materials are made, used, and disposed of.

The process of inserting drug molecules through the nose.

Following a path similar to the Brownian motion of small particles in fluid, which is random movement due to continuous collisions with the surrounding molecules in the fluid.

Coughed out from the throat or lungs.

Trapping something inside another object, or a capsule.

Here, encapsulation refers to trapping drug molecules inside the nanoparticle.

The process of combining different atoms, ions, or molecules to form one large molecule or ion due to electrostatic and/or hydrophobic interactions.

Steroid hormones that are produced in the kidneys or synthetically in the laboratory and can be used to treat inflammations.

Refers to the particles' ability to stay dispersed in a fluid without separating from the solution (precipitation) or forming big clusters (aggregation) within a period of time.

The diameter of a sphere that has the same hydrodynamic friction with that of the nanoparticle.

A form of bonding that does not involve the bonding between pairs of atoms.

Repelled by water molecules.

A polymer of two different polymer chains chemically bonded together in a specific order. For example, a linear diblock copolymer of the type A-B with 5 A monomers connected to 4 B monomers is a single chain A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B.

A polymer of three different polymer chains, which are chemically bonded together in a specific order. For example, a linear triblock copolymer of the type A-B-C with 5 A monomers connected to 4 B monomers connected to 5 C monomers is a single chain A-A-A-A-A-B-B-B-B-C-C-C-C-C.

Coated or surrounded in great extend by polymeric chains of poly(ethylene glycol).

CF stands for cystic fibrosis, a disease in the lungs.

Sputum is a mixture of saliva and mucus that is produced because of a disease, such as cystic fibrosis, and comes out of the the human body through the passage formed from the mouth, nose, throat, and lungs.

The joining of two or more chemical compounds.

Experiments taking place in test tubes, culture dishes, or other controlled environments outside of living organisms.

Experiments that take place in controlled external environments on tissues extracted from living organisms.

Experiments taking place inside living organisms.

To absorb and continue holding or keeping on a surface.

Have the ability to stick to mucus.

Mucus is a slimy substance that is produced in the human body (e.g. nose, throat, cervix) to protect and lubricate specific areas.

A pulmonary process is related to lung tissue.

Pulmonary drug delivery is the insertion of drug molecules to the human body through mouth to reach the lungs and treat lung-related diseases.

This is a mechanism to control production in biological settings. This means when something is being made (ex. protein) and reaches a certain concentration then the production is stopped. This can also be called a negative-feedback loop.

Fructose is only absorbed through diffusion into a cell, this means it relies on there being a lower concentration of fructose in a cell compared to the intestine. Passive absorption often leads to a saturation of the channels and so not as much fructose can be absorbed.

Sodium-coupled glucose transporters are found in the intestine. They use energy gathered from sodium ion transport into the bloodstream to generate energy to import glucose into a cell. Using energy to import a molecule up a concentration gradient (there is more glucose inside the cell than outside so it costs energy to import more) is termed active transport.

Wnt signaling is group of a pathways that regulate gene transcription and growth. Normally APC controls and limits growth that Wnt stimulates but when APC is deleted or mutated Wnt signaling is uncontrolled and leads to cancer formation.

Adenomatous Polyposis Coli is a tumor suppresor gene meaning that when it is functional, APC controls cell growth and prevents tumor formation. When it becomes mutated or deleted (as in the mouse models), uncontrolled cell growth leads to tumor formation.

A system of glands in the body that produce hormones that regulate metabolism, mood, sleep, development etc.

A cluster of factors such as high blood pressure, high blood sugar, excess body fat and abnormal cholesterol which contribute to diseases such as diabetes, heart-disease and strokes.

Multiple factors at play which can affect an outcome or result. In this case it is impossible to separate the variables of obesity, which causes a host of complications such as high blood pressure, and abnormal cholesterol, from the direct effects of sugar-sweetened beverages.

The fluid component of blood left after cells and clotting factors are removed.

Lumen; The inside space of a tubular structure. The intestine is a long digestive organ that contains a tube of cells which absorb nutrients of food that is passing through the inside of the tube, which is called the intestinal lumen.

A scale on which tumors are judged by abnormality and the cells' likelihood to spread.

A sweetener made from corn starch. It contains a mixture of glucose and fructose molecules which taste the same and have the same calories, though they are processed differently in the body.

formation of cancerous clusters of cells (tumors), where cell growth is uncontrolled

define

Tandem means having two in a row. and mass spectrometry is a method used to analyze samples to look at chemical makeup by looking at charge-to-mass signatures of individual atoms in a sample. Putting two mass spectrometers in a row increases the sensitivity of this method so that ions that are close in mass can be told apart. A great analogy and explanation can be found in this Youtube video.

adjective; far from the center. The end-most part of the intestines.

define

adverb; as much as desired. The authors put high-fructose corn syrup in water for the mice to drink as much as they wanted.

Noun; large and diverse amount of

Define APC

Mature cells that are not capable of cell division.

Question that is being addressed here is: Compared to immature/developing neurons, does mature cells have a different machinery (or set of mechanisms) to synthesize RNA and different neurotransmittters?

A neurotransmitter that has reduced effects on the neurons.

Refers to a process during which a cell undergoes a shift in electric charge distribution. At rest, the membrane of a neuron has a potential of -60 to -70 millivolts (mV). This means the inside of the cell is negatively charged relative to the outside. Depolarization is when the potential becomes less negative than the resting potential.

"Neo" meaning new, "synaptogenesis" referring to the formation of connections between neurons.

Refers to the group of neurons present in the pons of the brain.

The pons is a brain region that links the medulla and the mid-brain. It serves as a message station between several areas of the brain.

Learn more about action potentials and membrane depolarization with Khan Academy. See also their video here.

Stands for standard error, a measure to test how far the mean of the sample is from the estimated mean of the population.

A structure that gives rise to the peripheral nervous system and non-neuronal cells.

These bodies, consisting of receptors and cells, are located near the carotid arteries. There are two carotid arteries that run on either side of the neck, carrying blood to the neck, face, and brain.

A structure that gives rise to neurons and other structures in the nervous system.

Learn more about placodes with another annotated paper: https://www.scienceintheclassroom.org/research-papers/hair-feathers-and-scales-evolutionary-tale

A regulation that controls the conversion of DNA to RNA in organisms. Learn more with this HHMI BioInteractive video.

A set of codes that helps the organism adapt and maintain life.

In this instance, regulation occurs at the gene level to adapt to environmental conditions.

A gland situated above the kidneys. Adrenal glands produce a variety of hormones.

Neuroendocrine cells are the cells that receive input from neurons and release a hormone into blood for output. Any hormone produced and released by neuroendocrine cells are referred to as neurohumoral products.

Connections between the sympathetic nervous system and adrenal system.

A neurotransmitter that can be released from exocrine glands; for instance, sweat glands.

Functions include relaxation of smooth muscles in the stomach and gall bladder, and contraction of heart muscles.

It has been shown that in sweat glands, both VIP and acetylcholine (or cholinergic) are released from the same population of neurons.

An enzyme that converts dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) to dopamine.

Plasticity can be defined as the ability of the brain to mold and shape in response to experience. The change can be due to change in the receptors present in the brain, the chemicals itself, or the mechanism by which receptors respond to chemicals. 

Neurotransmitter plasticity refers to changes in neurotransmitters in response to plasticity.

Experiments that are performed on animals or humans.

Functions of the body that are essential for life; e.g., sleeping, eating, breathing, bladder activity.

The sympathetic nervous system is a part of the nervous system that controls the essential functions of life; for example, blood pressure and heart rate. The neurons present in this system are called sympathetic neurons.

You can think of the nervous system as electrical wiring, transmitting signals to and from different parts of the body. The system is made up of the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Neurons are cells found in the brain.

The human nervous system is made up of two components, the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS consists of nerves and fibers outside of the brain and spinal cord (which make up the CNS).

These are a class of neurotransmitters. Peptides are made of amino acids or a chain of amino acids.

Read more about the different neurotransmitters here.

Refers to the cells that release neurotransmitter acetylcholine.

Learn more in this video about neurotransmitter release: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/health-and-medicine/nervous-system-and-sensory-infor/neural-cells-and-neurotransmitters/v/neurotransmitter-release

Refers to cells that release the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine. An alternative name for norepinephrine is noradrenalin.

Samuel Pierpont Langley (1834-1906) was an American astronomer, physicist and inventor. His research on solar and lunar radiation greatly influenced Arrhenius.

Arrhenius used data from Langley's 1890 publication "The Temperature of the Moon" as the basis for his model.

Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) was a French scientist and mathematician who studied heat transfer. He theorized that Earth's atmosphere could act as a thermal insulator by absorbing heat (radiation) emitted by Earth's surface.

Arvid Hogbom (1857-1940), a Swedish geologist, was a colleague of Arrhenius, a professor at Stockholm University and a member of the Physical Society.

De Marchi seems to refer to the ability of the atmosphere to let through all wavelengths of radiation. He probably focused on the ability of water vapor in clouds to reflect incoming solar radiation, reducing how much solar energy reaches Earth's surface.

When Arrhenius discusses transparency in relation to his model, he focuses on the ability of water vapor to absorb infrared radiation and re-emit it back toward Earth's surface.

Luigi De Marchi was an Italian meteorologist. The work quoted here is from his prize-winning essay for a competition on the causes of the Ice Age.

A measure of the shape of an ellipse, how far it is flattened from a circular shape. An orbit with low eccentricity is almost circular, whereas an orbit with high eccentricity is highly elliptical.

Items 3, 5 and 9 in De Marchi's list make up the Milankovitch Cycles, which affect how much energy Earth receives from the Sun and how that energy is distributed over the globe.

For more information, see this resource from Climatica: http://climatica.org.uk/climate-science-information/long-term-climate-change-milankovitch-cycles

Also called "precession", this refers to the orientation of Earth's rotational axis relative to its position in its orbit around the Sun.

Items 3, 5 and 9 in De Marchi's list make up the Milankovitch Cycles, which affect how much energy Earth receives from the Sun and how that energy is distributed over the globe.

For more information, see this resource from Climatica: http://climatica.org.uk/climate-science-information/long-term-climate-change-milankovitch-cycles

The tilt of Earth's rotational axis relative to the plane of its orbit around the Sun.

Items 3, 5 and 9 in De Marchi's list make up the Milankovitch Cycles, which affect how much energy Earth receives from the Sun and how that energy is distributed over the globe.

For more information, see this resource from Climatica: http://climatica.org.uk/climate-science-information/long-term-climate-change-milankovitch-cycles

lowering

even more

This is a Latin phrase which translates as "from the stronger". Here, Arrhenius uses it to indicate that the remainder of the sentence presents an even stronger argument than the previous sentence.

unsupportable

namely; in other words

Differentially expressed genes are ones that have higher expression in one condition versus another.

In this context, bulk sequencing refers to the analysis of whole tissue, as opposed to single cells or nuclei.

Protoplasmic astrocytes are a subset of astrocytes that are located in the gray matter (which consists mostly of cell bodies) in the brain. They have many complex processes that can contact blood vessels and neurons.

Unbiased clustering is a statistical approach to make sense of large sets of data. It allows scientists to group together ("cluster") genes that are similar to one another.

Astrocytes, like microglia, are cells that facilitate neuronal functions. They mediate neuronal signaling, support the blood brain barrier, and help respond to sites of trauma.

Interneurons are neurons that act as an intermediate between two other neurons.

Upper-layer refers to where in the cortex these neurons are located.

Excitatory neurons are neurons which increases the activity of the cells it's connected to.

The RNA integrity number, or RIN, is an index of RNA quality. RNA can sometimes be degraded when it is isolated, so this is a useful way to see if the RNA is still reliable.

The postmortem interval is the time between when an individual died and when the tissue was prepared.

The anterior cingulate cortex is the part of the brain associated with higher level functions such as emotion, empathy, and decision making.

The prefrontal cortex is an area at the front of the brain. It is associated with social behavior, decision making, and personality.

Cortico-cortical projection neurons are cortical neurons which project (or connect to) other cortical neurons.

Microglia are "helper cells" in the brain. They help mediate neuron responses, clear out dead cells, and control immune responses.

Synaptic signaling refers to how neurons communicate with one another.

A projection called an axon from the pre-synaptic neuron touches or "synapses on" the dendritic projections of the post-synaptic neuron. Chemicals called neurotransmitters are released from the pre-synaptic neuron and mediate responses in the post-synaptic neuron.

The transcriptome refers to the total set of RNA transcribed from DNA.

In single-nucleus RNA sequencing, the nucleus (which contains DNA and nascently transcribed RNA) is isolated from a single cell. The isolated RNA undergoes RNA-sequencing, in which the RNA is broken up into fragments. Using a database, these fragments are then aligned to specific transcripts.

The neocortex is the part of the brain that in humans is associated with higher level functions such as cognition and language.

Genetic heterogeneity refers to the ability of a phenotype (in this case, autism) to manifest via genetic mutations in multiple different loci. This means that there isn't one single genetic mutation that's associated with autism.

Refers to the process of separating desired products from biosynthetic pathways

Any reagent that exhibits chirality (or asymmetry) in its molecular structure

compounds that contain two fused benzene rings; also referred to as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon

organic compounds that contain a halogen connected to a benzene ring

an active site created by chance rather than by design

The amnio acid, methionine

located at a closer distance

repels or has no affinity towards water

relatively unchanged when one goes back in genealogical time

An organism that thrives in extreme high temperature and high salt concentrations

Enantioinduction is also popularly known as asymmetric induction. This process is the preferential formation of one enantiomer over the other as a result of the influence of a chiral feature present in reactants or the catalyst.

not harmful to living cells

Compounds that contain carbon-silicon bonds

A compound available in one enantiomeric form

Chemoselectivity is the preferential reaction of a reagent with a specific functional group over others. Enantioselectivity is the extent to which one enantiomer is formed over the other in a chemical reaction.

speed up a reaction with the use of external agent, typically a chemical compound

A meeting of a subset of students from a larger lecture course in which students can ask questions, get clarification on lecture topics, and may solve additional problems or take quizzes (typically required with very large college courses).

Statistical measure of the strength of the relationship between two variables.

Another term for the "gender achievement gap" in which men outperform women in the same field.

High-paying.

Understanding the main ideas that make up the field.

Activities in which the student participates (as opposed to passively listening to a lecture).

Educational resources that can be incorporated into a teacher's lessons.

Short scenarios that give the student a real-world situation in which to apply their knowledge.

Stereotype threat or identity threat.

Fear and anxiety caused by the thought of having to take an exam.

Related to teaching.

The subjects that do not receive treatment.

Related to an individual's sense of identity.

Test on all material covered during the course.

The frequency of occurrence of some measure (for example: how many students got As, Bs, Cs, Ds, and Fs).

Supporting Online Materials (typically located at the end of the article).

The result deviates from that expected to arise by chance (from random variation or errors in sampling).

Any activity used to modify behavior, emotional state, or feelings.

The difference in test scores, course performance, and job prospects between people of different genders.

How course material is taught, such as through context-rich problems or curricular materials.

Perception, attention, learning, memory, and problem solving.

Based on a hypothesis that may have been supported in laboratory experiments, but has not yet been shown to work in practice.

Repeating a scientific experiment and finding the same results.

Interaction effects occur when the effect of one variable depends on another variable.

In this case, the effect of the intervention (values affirmation or control) depended on the student gender (male or female).

In response to lack of food and increased populations, animals broaden the scope of species they interact with beyond their original interactions.

An animal that eats primarily fruit

When the behavior between species in one area differs from the behaviors between species in another location.

A new relationship or pattern of behavior between plants and animals.

A drug that blocks the binding of acetylcholine to its nicotinic receptors.

Formation of new neurons.

Referring to a case where the neurotransmitter and the receptors are present on the same cell. The released neurotransmitter binds to the receptor on the same cell.

A quantitative measurement of a neuron size, shape, or density.

Brain cells in a group of nerves found at the base of the skull. The nodose and petrosal neurons are part of the vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves, respectively.

No change; unaltered.