Outcome on the whole community, not just individuals.

Get a benefit at the expense of someone else.

Sacrificing yourself for the greater good.

Strong and reliable.

When something is very noticeable.

Self-driving cars should ideally make the same types of decisions consistently.

If the only way for a self-driving car to avoid hitting a pedestrian is to hit a group of pedestrians, the car has to decide who to harm.

Thus, there should be moral principles coded into self-driving cars, to help them make decisions when they cannot avoid colliding with something. These moral decisions are difficult to turn into algorithms.

A marketable good that is bought and sold. If AVs become popular and spread globally, having effective decision rules will be even more important.

Decision rules are algorithms that tell the autonomous vehicle how to decide on what to do in a given scenario.

Even thought these events are unlikely, if there are many AVs on the road then some will inevitably crash.

If a crash is unavoidable, AVs are sometimes faced with choices where someone will be hurt no matter what. In these cases, the AV must make a decision about who will be hurt.

Making it so that traffic moves more smoothly.

Benchmark tests are standards or points of reference that are used to evaluate something's performance. Once a benchmark is established, later performance (under experimental conditions) can be compared to the benchmark.

In a utilitarian viewpoint, the most moral action is the one that has the best overall consequences for everyone, even if the choices are difficult.

For example, if you are driving a car and have to choose between killing several people and saving yourself, or sacrificing yourself to save that group of several people, the utilitarian choice would be you sacrificing yourself (because fewer people will die, even if it means that you will die).

test

AAAS Annual meeting

SitC

The study of how electromagnetic radiation (such as light) interacts with matter.

A unit of rapid oscillations of electron density.

The smallest unit of matter. Everything is made of atoms.

A physical constant that characterizes the strength of interaction between elementary charged particles (protons and electrons).

Another word for progeny is offspring.

An organism that is homozygous for a particular allele has two identical alleles at that locus. High homozygosity means the organism is homozygous for many genes. It is likely to be found in inbred organisms.

An interfering RNA, also known as RNAi, is a molecule that can be tailored to specifically block the expression of a gene. Here, the authors used an NPFR-specific RNAi to prevent the cells from making NPF receptors.Without the receptors, NPF has no effect on the fly's brain.

All neuropeptides in the brain work by attaching to specific receptors found on the surface of cells. Think of the cell surface as a wall, the receptor as an electrical outlet, and the neuropeptide as a plug. In order for the neuropeptide (plug) to have any effect, it has to successfully attach to the correct receptor (socket). Furthermore, a particular neuropeptide (say, a three-pronged plug) cannot attach to just any receptor (for example, a two-pronged socket). The receptor and the neuropeptide have to match in order for the system to have any effect.

Something that can have an altering effect on a particular phenomenon or behavior. For example, sleep might be considered a mediator of attentiveness in class, because the more soundly you sleep, the more likely you are to stay alert in school (and vice versa). Here, the researchers discuss the fact that the concentration of neuropeptide F in the brain has been known to change how organisms respond to sex.

Not enjoyable to eat, most often due to a bitter taste.

Fruit flies have taste receptors just like humans, but they aren't just limited to the tongue! Taste receptors in fruit flies are mounted all over the body, including leg bristles and wings.

Read more from University of California, Berkeley: https://www.berkeley.edu/news/media/releases/2004/06/25_flies.shtml

Neuropeptide F (NPF) is a specific type of neuropeptide found in flies. Human beings produce a similar type of neuropeptide called neuropeptide Y. NPF is believed to play an important role in regulating reward-seeking behaviors.

Neurons in the brain can communicate with one another in one of two ways—electrically or chemically. Neuropeptides are proteinlike chemical substances that a neuron is capable of secreting in order to initiate a somewhat long-lasting chemical communication with its neighboring neurons.

In all neurons.

AVPR2 is a gene that codes for a protein called vasopressin V2 receptor. AVPR2 binds the hormone vasopressin and contributes to the regulation of water in the body.

Off-target effects occur when the nuclease introduces changes to irrelevant sequences because of their similarity to the target sequence. High frequency of off-target effects are undesirable because it corresponds to low specificity, making it hard to control the nuclease activity.

The authors used "depletion scores" to compare nucleases. A depletion score quantifies how much expression was reduced by a specific nuclease. The higher the score, the more expression was "depleted."

KRAS is a protein which participates in intracellular signal transduction. Importantly, it controls cell proliferation. When mutated, it becomes constitutively active (always turned on) and contributes to the development of several cancers.

A type of vector that can use the cell's protein synthesis machinery to express the genes that it carries.

Localization signals make sure proteins go to the right place in a cell. These signals are in the form of sequences that are recognized by different parts of the cell.

Creating genetic mutations.

Typically, a single amino acid is coded by many different codons. Different species sometimes use different codons for the same amino acid, or produce different numbers of amino acids from the same codon.

As a result, when a researcher introduces a gene for a protein from one species into another, the amount of protein made is usually small. To increase the amount of protein produced, it is important to use codons for that particular species. This is done by introducing synonymous mutations in the gene. Synonymous mutations change a DNA sequence but result in the same amino acid.

Testing a material to figure out its composition and quality.

An enzyme responsible for the conversion of norepinephrine to epinephrine.

Class of opiate neurotransmitter.

Restoration of the nerves in the area either surgically or spontaneously.

Splits into two or more branches.

Across the membrane.

Occurs across the nerve cells.

A region from where an organ can develop.

The cells present in the medulla of the adrenal gland.

Small pockets that store neurotransmitter in a cell.

After birth.

Claude Pouillet (1790-1868) was a French scientist who did research in a variety of areas, including meteorology. Pouillet expanded on Fourier's ideas about Earth's surface temperature and developed an equation for the thermal equilibrium between the atmosphere and the surface.

Because Earth is much colder than the sun, it emits radiation of longer wavelengths, mainly infrared. These are the "dark rays". Gases in the atmosphere can absorb some of these waves and "retain" their energy by re-emitting them back toward the ground.

Solar radiation includes ultraviolet (UV), visible, and infrared waves, with peak intensity in the visible range. The atmosphere absorbs little of the UV and visible waves, allowing them to pass through to reach the surface. These are the "light rays" Arrhenius refers to. Some of the incoming infrared waves are absorbed by the atmosphere.

John Tyndall (1820-1893) was an Irish scientist and professor of physics at the Royal Institution of Great Britain. Tyndall measured the ability of different atmospheric gases, including CO2 and water, to absorb and emit infrared radiation.

An event that drastically reduces the size of the population. Loss of genetic variation is a knock-on effect. Causes can be disease, intense animal hunting, and mass migration.

New populations that arise when two genetically distinct breeds begin interbreeding. One reason for this is the coming together of breeds that were previously geographically separated.

These indicate the reliability of the data for a specific branch of the tree. Out of 100, this number estimates how closely a subset of the samples match the original result. One-hundred out of 100 suggests a high degree of certainty, whereas a value of 40 suggests uncertainty—it could be wrong. Bootstrap values are written on the nodes of the tree.

The term bootstrapping is associated with the expression, "Pull yourself up by your bootstraps." In statistics, one often does not have access to replicates for an experiment. Bootstrapping means randomly re-sampling your data as a mean to create replicates. Hence the analogy with bootstrapping, a self-sustaining process that allows for evaluating confidence without obtaining new data.

A type of graph used to map ancestry that is known as a phylogenetic tree. A neighbor-joining tree uses either the DNA or protein sequence of organisms to find differences between them. The two nearest nodes are defined as neighbors, based on how similar their DNA sequences are. This is done until all of the nodes have been paired together. The tree is directional, with older ancestors on the left and newer members on the right.

Refers to the earliest stage of the time period known as the Stone Age. The Paleolithic period ran from approximately 2.6 million years ago all the way up to about 10,000 B.C.E.

Single-base variations that exist at specific positions in the genome. For example, dog 1 has a T nucleotide at a specific position, whereas dog 2 has a C at the same position in the genome; that means that there's an SNP at this position.

Current estimates put the last maximum glaciation at 26,500 years ago.

The end of the most recent glaciation is now estimated to have occurred 11,700 years ago.

James Croll was a Scottish scientist who developed a theory linking the ice ages, including glacial and interglacial periods, to variations in Earth's position and orientation relative to the Sun.

To learn more about Croll and his work, see the following article published in the journal History of Meteorology: http://www.meteohistory.org/2006historyofmeteorology3/3fleming_croll.pdf

A geological period of reduced temperatures characterized by the presence of glaciers and polar ice sheets.

Earth is currently in the Quaternary Ice Age which marked the beginning of the Quaternary Period, 2.6 million years ago.

To learn more about ice ages, glacials and interglacials, see the following Wikipedia article: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_age

eliminated

the area between 40 and 50 degrees of latitude

In the Northern Hemisphere this includes northern China and Japan, Mongolia, southern parts of the former USSR, Italy, the Balkan States, France, northern Spain, the northern United States and southern Canada.

In the Southern Hemisphere this is mainly open ocean. It includes New Zealand, the islands of Tasmania, and the southern part of South America.

An interglacial is a time during an ice age in which temperatures are somewhat warmer, when ice sheets and glaciers may retreat. Interglacials occur between glaciations, which are times when ice sheets and glaciers reach their maximum extent.

Earth is currently in an interglacial, the Holocene Epoch, which began 11,700 years ago.

The cold, dry period of an ice age in which ice sheets and glaciers reach their maximum extent.

Arrhenius uses this term interchangeably with "glacial period" and "glaciation".

pleasant, warm, mild climate

The Tertiary Period is the geological period prior to the current Quaternary Period (Quaternary Ice Age).

cloudiness

carbon dioxide (CO2) gas

Throughout the paper, Arrhenius refers to gaseous carbon dioxide as "carbonic acid", the common name used at that time. Today we distinguish between these two different, though related, chemical species. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is produced when carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves in and reacts with water, forming an equilibrium.

Founded in the early 1890's in Stockholm, Sweden, the society was a group of scientists who met regularly to discuss the current questions and latest findings in the physical sciences. Arrhenius was one of the founders and among those who were interested in "cosmic physics", which was similar to what we call "Earth science" today.

The brain is a highly interconnected network of neurons that project to distant regions. It is in this network that neurons can connect in very specific patterns to form a "circuit," or a specific path that has been mapped to a specific function.

A long, threadlike projection from a neuron's cell body that conducts impulses from one cell to the next.

GAD67 is an enzyme that catalyzes a reaction converting glutamate to GABA. GABA is one of the major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the nervous system.

Has evolved in some way.

Reactive oxygen species inhabit the cell and can result in harm and lead to irregular protein and RNA transcription. By being unable to remove and detoxify the reactive oxygen species, then an imbalance between the cell and body is created as a source of stress which can lead to further detrimental effects.

The fixed position of a chromosomal unit which can carry a specific gene or origin of a phenotype trait.The position is usually used in order to determine what other factors attribute to a characteristic change.

Associated.

An analytical technique to precisely measure and observe the certain behaviors of an factor or subject. The results is typically an intensive property of the target of the assay in numerical terms.

The end of an amino acid chain signified by a carboxylic group.They are usually the end of protein synthesis , and has signals in the shape of sequences to retain and sort certain protein.

A method to detect and analyze specific amino acids sequences in certain proteins. The proteins are extracted which is then used with this analytical tool to determine the antibodies they bind to.The sample is then put under electrophoresis and transferred onto a membrane.

The state of being repelled from water due to the lack of attraction. This is normally caused by shifting polarities of cells and molecules.

Large scale death.

Sentinel organisms are defined as organisms used to detect risks for humans through advanced warnings. In this case, for the Eastern Oysters. Ex: Canaries in coal mines.

The worst of a specifed thing (HABs).

Suspended in air.

Another way of saying a model or figure.

a substance produced by an organism. An example is when there is an accumulation in shellfish. If the shellfish is ingested by a human it can cause paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) which can cause damage to the nervous system and can paralyze muscles.

When aquatic animals and plants are raised and grown for food.

When a phosphate group is added to a compound. Many times the addition of a phosphate results in a conformational change which can activate or deactivate the compound.

Proteins found in chromatin.

The physical outward expression of a gene due to an organism's genotype.

Genotype is based off of the coded alleles of an organism.

DNA is not changed. Instead its the genes that are expressed or inactivated change in an organism.

Brevetoxins are neurotoxins produced by Karenia brevis.

These neurotoxins accumulate in shellfish and is the cause of neurotoxic shellfish poisoning (NSP).

NSP will cause disruption of neurological processes in humans.

Proliferation is the rapid increase in cell growth or organism reproduction.

Algal proliferation, in this paper, is the rapid growth of a the dinoflagellate Karenia brevis.

In DNA Methylation, a methyl group is added to the DNA in order to change the activity of the DNA segment. (For example: turning an "off" gene "on").

Discolored red patches of coastal waters caused by harmful algal bloom.

Using three or more dimensional spaces in imaging techniques.

Imaging used to collect and process information across different wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. The goal of hyperspectral imaging is to locate objects, identify materials, or detect processes. For example, this type of imaging has been used to detect early warning signs of disease in agricultural settings. This aids phenology in how individual species are identified and analyzed.

In plants, the layer of actively dividing cells that is responsible for secondary growth of stems and roots.

A keystone species is one that plays a particularly important role in an ecosystem; a species in which other species in a shared ecosystem depend on for survival.

The ability of an organism to withstand extreme weather conditions (such as drought).

The inability of an organism to withstand extreme weather conditions (such as drought).

Conspecific: individuals belonging to the same species.

Coexisting conspecifics: two species living together in the same habitat.

Extreme changes in climate decreases organisms' (of the same species) abilities to live together in the same habitat. This could be due to competition for resources.

Barriers that prevent different species from interbreeding. These could include isolation between habitats (physical barriers), behavioral isolation (differences in mating rituals), or mechanical isolation (incompatible reproductive structures).

Variation within a species group or between individuals of the same species.

A large naturally occurring community of plants and animals in a specific climate. Some examples of biomes include the tundra, forests, grasslands, and deserts.

A group of organisms that evolved from a common ancestor.

The complete mass of a living organism or the collective mass of entire community of living organisms. Biomass can be measured in total weight (with water) or dry weight.

The interbreeding between two individuals of a different species or variety of species.

The assessment of an organism's functions based on the outer appearance of the organism.

Relating to the classification of organisms based on their shared characteristics.

Two organisms of different species depend on each other for survival.

The loss of organisms from ecological communities.

A forested ecosystem that receives heavy rainfall and contains primarily deciduous and some trees.

A folivore is an herbivore that primarily consumes leaves (foliage).

Biocontrol measures or biological control is a method of controlling pests using natural enemy organisms. For example, mites, insects, and pathogens have all been used to eliminate invasive species.

Insects that feed on green plants.

The process by which autotrophic organisms use the suns energy to make its own food. An autotroph is an organism that does not rely on anything but itself for ways of gathering essential nutrients. Phenology can change the rates at which photosynthesis in tropical plants.

The process by which CO2 is removed from the atmosphere and stored in a physical structure (e.g. oceans, terrestrial ecosystems, geologic formations). This process can occur naturally or artificially.

The rate at which organic matter is produced in an ecosystem through photosynthetic and chemosynthetic organisms. For example the amount of carbon that is stored within a tree as a result of photosynthesis. Phenology can determine this rate.

The deterioration or aging of the functional characteristics of an organism. Leaf senescence is the last stage in leaf development. During leaf senescence, nutrients are eventually reused by the plant in other areas. For example, nitrogen from lost leaves is later used for the creation of stem proteins. This is key for understanding how plants grow and how plants cycle energy and matter.

The appearance of a large number of new leaves in a relatively short period of time. New leaves are produced simultaneously on all branches of a bare plant.

The process of managing an ecosystem to achieve maximum diversity in plant species in order to have a healthy fitness level within the ecosystem. Understanding changes in plant phenology will be necessary in order to develop the most effective conservation practices.

The collection and analysis of ecological data by the public alongside scientists.

A scientific method of dating historical events using the growth pattern of tree rings. These rings can be used to analyze the atmospheric conditions that would've existed during a specific time period.

A collection of dried plants.

Changes in community structures that occur at the outermost boundaries of a habitat. The edges of a habitat are its first defense against extreme weather conditions and other harmful disturbances. Phenology can help determine how edges in an ecosystem change over time.

Habitat loss due to the division of large, continuous habitats, into smaller isolated patches of habitats.

Hierarchal levels within a food chain. Bottom-up trophic organization is ordered as 1.) producer, 2.) primary consumer, 3.) secondary consumer, and 4.) tertiary consumer.

The role that an individual organism has in its respective ecosystem. An individual's niche includes its methods of survival (acquiring food, shelter, etc), how it reproduces, and all other interactions it has with the abiotic and biotic factors in its environment. Changes in plant phenology can affect the ability of organisms in a community to live and survive amongst each other.

The coexistence between two competing species in a community results from stabilizing (different niches) and equalizing forces (similar fitness). Equalizing forces reduce differences in fitness between two or more species, which makes competition relatively equal between them. Stabilizing forces promote greater competition between individuals of the same species as opposed to competition between two or more separate species.

Contributions from the natural environment that benefit human populations. In this case, the medicinal value that may be present in the plants within the tropical environment.

An organism that feeds on plant material.

Organisms that break down organic matter, primarily detritus. Detritus includes dead organisms and fecal materials.

Organisms that break down organic material, primarily the remains of other dead organisms. An example is the denitrification done by bacteria in order for plants to obtain natural nitrogen.

Whether or not plant reproductive processes (e.g. flowering) occur at the same time in a particular population. Synchrony of reproduction can either be advantageous or disadvantageous for a plant. For example, plants that reproduce within the same time period increase the number of potential plants with which an individual can exchange genes. However, if a large proportion of plants in a population are reproducing at the same time, seedling death could increase as a result of density-dependent processes.

The amount of time within a 24-hour period in which an organism is exposed to light; generally the length of a day.

Biological, geological, and chemical processes in which elements and other substances are moved through living systems and the surrounding environment.

The gradual increase in the overall temperature of Earth's atmosphere as a result of the greenhouse effect (trapping of the sun's warmth in the atmosphere), increased atmospheric CO2 and other greenhouse gasses, and pollution.

Living and non-living factors control what physical attributes are expressed in a plant species, due to changing environmental stresses.

Relating to time. Temporal ecology focuses on the timing of ecological processes; for example, the timing of flowering events.

Relating to space. Spatial ecology focuses on the distribution of species. By understanding how the distribution of species changes overtime, scientists can better understand the ecological influences of climate change.

Invasive and exotic species are organisms that are either native or non-native to a particular ecosystem and could potentially cause harm to systems within that ecosystem.

Disturbances (in this case, ecological) as a result of human activities (e.g., agricultural practices, technology, and urbanizations).

A relationship between two organisms of different species in which each benefit from the other. For examples, yucca moths lays their eggs in the flowers they pollinate; the eventual yucca larvae consume the flowers' seeds.

The number and abundance of the various species living in an ecological community. Species abundance is the number of a specific species relative to surrounding species within that community.

A subfield of biology that focuses on the evolutionary processes (mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection) that eventually resulted in the diversity of life on Earth, originating from a common ancestor.

The study of the relationships between all of the organisms within an ecosystem and their surrounding environment. Like in this paper looks at how plants interact with their environment and the changing climate.

The study of the interactions between living organisms and their surrounding atmospheric conditions. Some examples include, the relationship between agricultural yields and weather, plant tolerance to extreme weather conditions, and the impacts of pollution on plant species.

Changes in system processes within Earth's biosphere. The system includes land, oceans, the atmosphere, biodiversity, and the impact of human activities on key processes. An example is the effect of rising atmospheric carbon dioxide on sea levels and permafrost melting.

The study of life cycle events in living things; more specifically, the timing of these life cycle events. For example, a phenologist might study migratory patterns, hibernation cycles, seed dispersal, and dormancy. In this study, phenology is used to help scientists understand the effects of a changing climate.

A variable similar to the independent variable, that is observed and can help increase the results of the experiment.

The reciprocal transplant experiment is an experiment where organisms from two or more environments are introduced to each other.

The experiment is commonly used to test how well the organisms adapt, and sources of growth variation (genetic or environmental).

It stands for Two-dimensional non-metric multidimensional scaling ordination and is used to visualize how similar individual cases of a dataset are on a small axes.

Example:

Chlorophyll is a green pigment that is found in the chloroplasts of algae and plant cells. It works well to absorb sunlight which is then used to make carbohydrates, through a process called photosynthesis.

Relating to the form or structure of things, having to do with somethings physical appearance/structure.

Referring to something's qualities, not numerical but categorical. Can be described with words, not numbers.

A process of separation where components are distributed; in this case the chemical components of the gas.

Pubescence in this context means small hairs or short down on the leaves and stems of various plants.

A genotypes ability to change as an adaptation to the environment. This refers to the plant's distribution of resources.

Regression analysis is a statistical model made up up of a series of processes used to understand how the dependent variable changes when any of the independent variables are modified.

http://www.discoverlife.org/nh/tx/Plantae/Dicotyledoneae/Burseraceae/Protium/subserratum/images/Protium_subserratum,_baby_leaf_bottom.JP80262_88.320.jpg

The Protium subserratum Engl. is the name of a species that has distinct defense mechanisms and is in the genus Protium, which are flowering plants in the family Burseraceae.

Parapatric distribution refers to a distributional pattern where pairs of taxa are partially overlapping or have separate but adjacent distributions, typically along common boundaries.

incipient meaning the beginning of a process and speciation is the diverging of similar species into two or more differing species due to evolution

MCMC methods are a class of algorithms for sampling from a probability distribution. By constructing a Markov chain, a sample of the desired distribution by observing the chain after a number of steps.

TDDs are negative when over zero degrees celcius (thawing) and positive when under zero degrees celcius (freezing). Best for comparing arctic temperatures across specific time periods.

http://psc.apl.washington.edu/nonwp_projects/landfast_ice/freezing.php

Herbaceous (having no stem above ground) plant with grass-like features.

It may take a lot of work to study plants at extreme environments like the tundra. Remote sensing facilitates the studying of plants without having to come in contact with them.

Watch this video by MonkeySee https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sBI3MIbzIBA

A defensive organ found in all papilionid (from the family of Swallowtail butterflies) larvae, in all stages.

To become a pupa.

The presence of greater variability (statistical dispersion) in a data set than would be expected based on a given statistical model.

The planning, implementation, and coordination of the details of a business or other operation.

Spatial and temporal abundance patterns relate to the study. Temporal abundance pattern has to do with quantity over a period of time and spatial abundance patterns have to do with quantity over a particular area of space.

Temporal monitoring is monitoring that is conducted over time.

Focal species are species that are extremely sensitive to the changes in an environment.

Side-fidelity, also known as philanthropy, is the likelihood of a particular organism to stay in a set habitat, or to return to it. There are many reasons to this, such as breeding and food abundance.

the study of cyclic and seasonal natural phenomena, especially in relation to climate and plant and animal life.

is a suitable gauge for assessing the environmental influence on fish biological performance (Fry 1971)

Isothermal Layer Depth

Sea Surface Temperature

Information relative to the space and time of the tagged fish.

The quality or state of being diverse in character or content.

insert (something of a different nature) into something else

California Current Large Marine Ecosystem (CCLME), along the Mexico and California coasts

Stands for Heat Increment of Feeding.

Located in the abdominal cavity.

Until now or until the point in time under discussion

Internal organs within the main cavities of the body.

means having many curves or turns.

authorization of feeding.

The Pacific bluefin tuna are smaller than the Atlantic bluefin tuna. It reaches the maximum length of 3m and a maximum weight of 540kg.

express or measure of quantity.

means gathering or collecting.

conditions under which an animal lives