By directlymeasuring the functional mutation rate, Maughanet al.(2007) wereable to predict how long until plasticity should be lost in the absenceof costs, and compare this prediction to the observed rate of loss.

Comparisons between environmental sensory networks ofclosely related populations (Tsujiet al.,2011; Longet al.,2013) offerevidence that novel genetic variation may be present in many systems—suggesting organisms frequently overcome such limits to plasticity

Selective pressures that are shaping microbiome char-acteristics within high-income countries may include prenatal and postnatal antibiotics exposure, dietary antimicrobials, toothpaste, soaps and perhaps even consumption of chlorinated water.

Understanding the coevolution of milk glycans, the immune system and gut bacteria in infancy across mammals may be critical in improving human health in infants and provides a translational model for modulation of the gut microbiota

The microbiota seems to exert effects on the next generation from gestation, via maternal microbiota and immune responses.

Akeyaspectofbiodiversityconservationconcernsthepotentialpervasiveinfluenceofhumansocietiesonbiodiversity.

Here,wearguethatepigeneticvariation,andmoreparticularlyDNAmethylation,representsamolecularcomponentofbiodiversitythatdirectlylinksthegenometotheenvironment.Assuch,itprovidestherequiredinformationontheecologi-calbackgroundoforganismsforanintegrativefieldofconservationbi

Epigenetic modifications contribute to phenotypic variation (Jablonka 2013), which may have wide ecological implications (Table 7 .1), including phenotypic plasticity in response to different environments (He & Amasino 2005; Nicotra et al. 2010). There are several kinds of epigenetic modifications, although the most studied so far is DNA methylation (Jaenisch & Bird 2003). Methylation generates phenotypic variation in several tax.a. In a mutant form of the plant Linaria vulgaris, flower symmetry is changed from bilateral to radial by methy-lation of the Lcyc gene (Cubas et al. 1999). The epigenetic modification is heritable, and demethylation of the Lcyc gene causes a reversion to wildtype. In mice, epigenetic modi-fications of the agouti locus alter coat color (Morgan et al. 1999) and modifications of the axin locus generate a kinked-tail phenotype (Rakyan et al. 2003). A spontaneous mutation in methylation to the promoter of the colorless nonripening locus in the tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) prevents fruit ripening (Manning et al. 2006). Because epigenetic modifi-cations are more dynamic and reversible than DNA mutations (Slatkin 2009), more rapid flexibility can be generated than is possible with genetically-based adaptation alone. An excellent example of epigenetic mechanisms underling phenotypic plasticity is found in vernalization (the acceleration of flowering after prolonged cold temperature) of Arabidopsis thaliana. Vemalization causes changes in histone methylation that alter chromatin structure and ultimately allows for plasticity in flowering (Bastow et al. 2004). Another example is found in the leaf characteristics of holly trees in response to her-bivory (Herrera & Bazaga 2013). Here, mammalian browsing is correlated to a prickly leaf phenotype, and DNA methylation differs between prickly and nonprickly leaves. Further, experiments on nearly isogenic epigenetic recombinant inbred lines of A. thaliana demon-strate that variation in DNA methylation may contribute substantially to heritability in plant traits and the plasticity of these traits (Zhang et al. 2013).

epigenetic inheri-tance, which "occurs when phenotypic variations that do not stem from variations in DNA base sequences are transmitted to subsequent generations of cells or organisms.

How can we do integrative biology in research and education? In terms of curricula, we can make sure that students are introduced very early to broadly based science that is centered in biology by featuring organisms but has a scope that includes reference to all elements of the hierarchy of biological organization and the other sciences and humanities. For example, the kindergartner, learning about the plants and animals that live in the schoolyard pond, a rice paddy, or a garden near home, can participate in a discussion of the biology of the organisms and their interactions with one another, the effects of climate, the social dimensions of food and water supply and desiccation, and the aesthetics of a calling frog's song or a beautiful stand of plants. Education in following years can be more fine-grained, inclusive, and synthetic as different kinds of ideas, questions, and problems—and how to deal with them—are considered (which might make learning fundamentals and techniques more interesting). It is by doing science that students learn critical thinking and positive skepticism, and they should be engaged in hands-on science as early as possible, while they are still curious about the world around them. The maintenance of critical thinking and skepticism is important at all levels of the scientific enterprise—professionals should not lose that capacity.

Educational curricula should be sure to include acquisition of function—techniques, ideas, and communication—in relevant areas outside students' central discipline.

Integrative approaches offer much that current practices do not. Integration facilitates the generation of new hypotheses and new questions because representatives with an array of expertise communicate with one another about general but complex issues. The ability of such research teams to generate data and resources faster, and with more dimensionality, than can practitioners of the single-focus model of research confers a “competitive advantage.” Most important, the new ideas, approaches, and insights of integrative approaches can make the science more innovative.

the approach that an individual or institution adopts may depend on the nature of the person's or organization's expertise.

It is both an attitude about the scientific process and a description of a way of doing science