Accordingly, key word searches using emotional state (fear/pain/anxiety), fMRI, and visual were conducted in PubMed (an online database for biomedical literature).

Of these technologies, fMRI provides high-spatial-resolution images of brain activation as good as 1 mm without the bias toward the cortical surface of EEG or MEG, and with a much better time resolution than other techniques such as PET.

limbic system

Based on Zajonc's work, Ulrich proposed a theory of preferenda, outlining gross visual properties that could elicit an affective response, including (1) gross configurational or structural aspects of settings; (2) gross depth properties that require little inference; and (3) general classes of environmental content (e.g., water, vegetation, and mountains).

Characteristics of visual images such as the emotional dimension (valence/arousal), subject matter (familiarity, ambiguity, novelty, realism, and facial expressions), and form (sharp and curved contours)

In addition to valence and arousal, novelty is a critical stimulus dimension for amygdala engagement. Weierich, Wright, Negreira, Dickerson, and Barrett (2010) conducted an fMRI study that examined the contributions of novelty, valence, and arousal to amygdala activation. The study showed that in comparison to negative (vs. positive) and high (vs. low) arousal stimuli, the amygdala had higher peak responses and a longer period of activation to novel (vs. familiar) stimuli. They also found that novelty could be dissociated from valence and arousal and have independent affective significance. On a behavioral level, the authors found a strong relationship between novelty and arousal, demonstrating that subjects found novel images more arousing, which would, in turn, also have an impact on the amygdala. Because amygdala activation links to fear and anxiety, the novelty of stimuli should be considered carefully in settings where people might be vulnerable.

The expression of fear as emotion is manifested in physiological responses such as blood pressure, freezing, and hormonal change, and it is mediated by the outputs of the amygdala to lower-brain centers (insula, hypothalamus), whereas the experience of fear is a feeling, a conscious higher-level recognition of being scared, involving the frontal and sensory cortices (Nanda, Pati, & McCurry, 2009).

Ulrich (2009) shares two theories supporting the impact of nonthreatening nature scenes on improved physiological and psychological outcomes. The first is the evolutionary theory or biophilia theory, which holds that millions of years of evolution have lefthumans genetically prone to respond positively to nature settings that fostered well-being and survival for early humans. As outlined in Appleton's (1975) evolutionary theory, specific attributes of landscapes that dictate aesthetic preference concern prospect (opportunity/ vantage point) and refuge (safety/shelter)-both essential for survival. The second theory Ulrich identifies is the emotional congruence theory, the notion that emotional states bias human perception of environmental stimuli in ways that are congruent or match feelings (Ulrich, 2009).

During this time, visual stimuli are delivered to the subjects by using a mirror, and brain activity is monitored. The setup required for an fMRI study limits its application in real-life situations, such as in hospital ICUs or waiting rooms. All studies reviewed were conducted in lab settings, using visual images to induce emotional states.

emotional processing

According to Korpela, Klemettila, and Hietanen (2002), positive changes in physiological activity that occur within 4 to 40 minutes are called restoration, and the environments that induce these changes are called restorative environments. For example, physiological data collected by measuring skin conductance, muscle tension, and pulse transit time from subjects who watched photographic simulations of natural settings showed faster recovery than subjects who viewed simulated urban settings (Ulrich et al., 1991). There were similar findings for heart rate measurements collected in a dental clinic; patients experienced lower stress on days that a large mural depicting a natural scene was hung on the waiting room wall versus days when the wall was leftblank (Heerwagen, 1990). In another study, patients on gurneys viewing ceiling-mounted scenes of nature and/or water had systolic blood pressure levels 10 to15 points lower than patients exposed to either aesthetically pleasing "arousing" pictures or a control condition of no picture (Coss, 1990).

amygdala

We suggest that American Indian mascots are harmful because they remind American Indians of the limited ways others see them and, in this way, constrain how they can see themselves.

At the center of the debate is a theoretically significant question about whether American Indian mascots can elicit both positive associations and negative psychological effects for American Indians.

Chief Illiniwek

In addressing the mascot controversy, we (a) suggest that the relative invisibility of American Indians in mainstream media gives inordinate communicative power to the few prevalent representations of American Indians in the media, (b) propose a working model of how American Indian mascots may influence psychological functioning, and (c) provide the first empirical assessment of whether the use of American Indian mascots by professional sports teams (e.g., Cleveland Indians) or academic institutions (e.g., University of Illinois Fighting Illini) has psychological consequences for American Indian students.