So, are we like Plato’s Cave dwellers — not just in infancy, but throughout our adult lives? It seems we are, at least in one important way: I refer to the unsettling fact that we too are haunted by things we do not know we do not know; and we cannot imagine how drastically those unknowns would alter our lives and our view of the world.

We understand. It is painful for any of us to accept the revelation that our precious “knowledge” is false, that we have been deluded, and to confront the radical implications: assumptions discarded, insights misguided, principles betrayed, relationships undone, lives altered, and worlds shattered.

Human beings tend to prefer cognitive comfort, the reinforcement of the familiar, to an encounter with the unknown.

Utter ignorance, however, for which the dictionary offers the term ignoration, is yet more profound: The prisoners in Plato’s Cave do not know what they do not know; they do not even know that they do not know. They dwell in ignorance, but cannot recognize it. Ignoration is thus a predicament, a trap — one that is not comprehended by those who are caught in it and dwell there. In a sense, they are not in a place at all: Theirs is rather a placelessness in which one doesn’t even know one is lost.Fortunately, this trap, like a Chinese finger puzzle, has a simple solution: learning. And yet, it is remarkable that an escape occurs — how does one come to learn what one does not know one does not know? After all, the prisoners have no ability to free themselves; more to the point, they have no motivation to escape, since even that desire would presuppose a sense of possibility they lack. Their bondage seems natural to them; it is their form of life; nothing better calls to them. They cannot see their ignorance as ignorance. As the influential Muslim philosopher Al-Ghazzali put it: “Heedlessness is an illness which the afflicted person cannot cure himself.”

Suppose, however, that you had never heard of the Singer automobile. Despite your familiarity with antique automobile manufacturers and models, you might be surprised to learn of a make or model that had escaped your notice. Or, imagine that you, somewhat less expert, only knew the names of a few sports car manufacturers. In either case, you would have some sense of what acquiring such new knowledge would be like; you could specify its parameters beforehand. You would grasp in a general way what learning about an unfamiliar automaker would entail; and given that possibility, you could identify what it is you do not know — albeit with less precision than in the first case. Such factual ignorance can be delineated in this way because you possess other general, relevant knowledge (in this case, knowledge about cars, their manufacturers, the meaning of “roadster,” and so on). In these ordinary situations, it is the knowledge we possess that serves to awaken and focus our sense of our own ignorance.

Obviously, no one is born educated; and every educated person is, at any given moment, ignorant about many things.

Are we like these cave dwellers? Is this gloomy cave the image of the womb from which we were all thrust unknowing into the light? But do we not then quickly overcome this primal oblivion — or do we all still dwell in a place of such abysmal ignorance? To think this through, I want to reverse Plato’s approach: Rather than describing how we may know the truth, let us consider how we recognize ignorance.

The Cave is a fiction, of course. With a shudder, we gratefully distance ourselves and our lives from that bizarre place and its “strange prisoners.” We breathe deeply the air of the sunlit world. But then, almost off-handedly, comes Plato’s stark and chilling statement: “They’re like us.”

Life is what it is, what it has always been; they do what they do and feel what they feel because they know nothing else. They are ignorant. But we know … and it is terrifying. Because Plato has, through his narrative, given us privileged knowledge of their situation, we know what they do not; we can affirm their ignorance.

extremis

prisoners would in every way believe that the truth is nothing other than the shadows

Plato regards such a plight as worse than imprisonment, worse than servitude, more like death: he says, quoting the “Odyssey,” “Better to be the humble servant of a poor master and to endure anything, than to live and believe as they do” — and the Homeric reference here is to the dead who dwell in Hades. As Plato expects, we feel deep sadness at the absence of any chance to understand anything, to achieve anything of value, or to experience anything of beauty. The horror of ignorance is incapacity.

Freedom is primordially the ability to move our body. Beyond being our basic capacity for meeting our needs, bodily movement, including change of place, leads us to new experiences, permits learning, and generates perspective

This place of ignorance is not only a dark cave; it is a prison, a deprivation chamber.

They have no other memory of life, since they have been imprisoned in this way since childhood. Before them, they see only moving shadows that are cast by objects unknown to them, illumined by a flickering fire that we are told lies somewhere behind them. They know nothing of this except the shadows and hear only echoes from the voices of their keepers, whom they have never seen.

“When I put on Viking clothes, I’m not trying to be someone I’m not, but rather emphasise who I already am.”

around hundred gallons of tar, linseed oil, and ox blood has been used. The chieftain’s hall is painted green, which was the costliest pigment one could obtain back then”, says the town king Hansen. According to him, there are about 40 Viking reenactment groups in Norway, the active participants numbering somewhere between 2,000 and 4,000. Internationally, there are ten times as many

But there is a lot more to the Viking culture than plunder and violence. In the old Viking country on the west coast of Norway, there are people today who live by their forebears’ values, albeit the more positive ones.

Any surname ending with 'son' can be traced back to the Vikings as they brought in the 'son of' name structure. In Ireland and Scotland, the ‘Mc’ is the equivalent. Many of Britain’s towns and place names are derived from the Old Norse language, because the Vikings settled there – especially in northern and eastern England. Towns and places ending in ‘thorpe’ (an ‘outlying farm’ or ‘torp’ in Swedish today), ‘by’ (‘farm’ in Old English and ‘village’ in modern Swedish) and 'kirk' (meaning ‘church’ or ‘assembly’) are common. From Dunthorpe in Oxfordshire to Kirkby in Liverpool, the Viking presence is everywhere in England.1 / 4Show image on full screenPrevious imageNext imageAifur Restaurant & Bar, StockholmAifur is named after a Viking ship and offers a historical dining concept. On the small stage, musicians often sit and play music with historical instruments.Photo: Cheyenne Olander/AifurShow image informationi

heroes slain in combat ended up in Valhalla

Creative in spirit, Vikings had a way with wood and metal, fashioning these materials into beautiful objects. Silversmiths kept busy – Vikings of both genders loved adorning themselves with jewellery such as arm rings and amulets. But the masterpiece above all was the Viking longship – a precisely engineered vessel built to travel fast and go ashore with ease.

Vikings were known to pull out a set of folding scales to avoid overpaying

Alongside growing crops and keeping animals, Vikings were inventive and craft-focused. They were expert silversmiths and enjoyed wearing jewellery and ornaments made of silver, gold and other metals. Highly resourceful, they used every scrap of natural materials to create textiles and objects such as the Vikings’ famous ‘drinking horn’, made from the horns of their farm animals. This craft-focused, 'back to basics' attitude is reflected in Swedish society today, with sustainability and resourcefulness becoming ever more important

free to divorce their husbands

tend to dominate popular culture today, most Vikings led peaceful, farmer-style lives close to nature with their families, with strong women at the fore

Free-spirited, courageous and innovative, they were true explorers and travelled the world as far as north America and Asia

nuanced

Leaving their homelands in Scandinavia – Sweden, Norway and Denmark – these fearless seafarers set off in expertly engineered longships to trade and raid – and find better places to live. They traversed the coastlines of Europe, staking claims in countries such as Britain, France, Spain, Italy and modern-day Ukraine, Belarus and Russia. One well-documented raid, which has contributed to the Vikings' coldblooded reputation, played out in AD793 when the Vikings attacked a monastery at Lindisfarne in northeast England's Northumbria. Armed with axes and swords, the Vikings burned down buildings and raided monasteries for treasure.

So where are Vikings from and what was their agenda

Each summer, you can enjoy live performances of Shakespeare’s greatest plays from Danish and international companies, including the Royal Shakespeare Company. There are Shakespeare events for all the family at HamletScenen’s Shakespeare Festival at Kronborg Castle. It's a great summer day out from Copenhagen.

Holger the Dane is a legendary figure in Danish culture. If Denmark is ever in trouble, he’ll wake from his rock throne under Helsingør and defend her!

You can learn the rich history of Kronborg Castle (Elsinore) on guided tours every day. There are 3 different tours of different lengths and some are free once you’ve paid to get into the castle

t’s been burned to the ground and rebuilt since, but always maintained its vital position at the head of the Øresund Sound.

This has become the English name for Helsingør, the town where you can visit Kronborg.

The ascending Nature motive from the introduction becomes transformed many times in the course of Zarathustra, but initially it occurs in the second section, “Of the Great Yearning.” The two nervously twisting themes in “Of Joys and Passions” combine in “The Dirge.” In the next section, “Of Science,” Strauss symbolizes learnedness by a fugue with a theme based on Zarathustra’s opening theme. The complex emotional content of “The Convalescent” gains relief in the rhythms of “The Dance Song” with its mocking suggestion of the super-person dancing a cabaret waltz. The final section, “Night-Wanderer’s Song,” opens with the tolling of midnight bells. A mood of hushed mystery prevails over the closing pages of the score. In the final measures comes a quiet, subtle return of the original struggle between the tonalities B (Humankind) and C (Nature). “At the end,” remarks Strauss scholar Norman Del Mar, “for all Man’s achievements and hard-won peace of mind, Nature inevitably has the last word, as Nature always will, whatever beings Earth may conjure up to dispute her sovereignty.”

I meant rather to convey in music an idea of the evolution of the human race from its origin, through the various phases of development, religious as well as scientific, up to Nietzsche’s idea of the Übermensch [super-person].

Philosophy through music? Ridiculous! Yet, unknown to Strauss or anyone else, Nietzsche had confided to his journal that the nature of Zarathustra belongs “almost among the symphonies.” On the eve of Zarathustra’s premiere in December 1896, Strauss felt it necessary to clarify his position and wrote:

super-person” who is a free spirit longing after higher aspirations than his world seems to offer.

Friedrich Nietzsche’s

Many of the adventures we read of a wise man would never have attempted. Probably he only used this thumb in times of great importance for fear that if he used it for everything the great gift would leave him.

“I but burnt my finger on it and sucked the place,” said Finn. “That was enough. I know now that I am the son of Cool and that you killed him while he lay wounded. Get up and defend yourself, for I am about to avenge my father!”

He knew at once that it was the Salmon of Knowledge. He felt that he was already the wisest man in the country. But even with knowledge so close to him he still had a desire to have some one else do the work. He set his pupil at the task of cooking the fish, cautioning him against eating a bite of it. Then he went off to take a nap.

The big fish swam right in front of him, turning back and forth in the sunlight and showing very plainly that it did not intend swimming away. At last Finn remembered that it was a fish he was waiting for, so he reached into the water for it. The salmon offered no fight, but allowed the boy to lift him out upon the bank.

The man who ate the flesh of this fish would be ever afterwards the wisest man in the country.

Finn was a bright pupil and very early became skilful enough to write poetry himself.

There was no space in the cave for the use of a sword, so Finn did not draw it. Instead he attacked the animal with his bare hands. He caught it by the throat and held it until it ceased its struggles. Then he carried the dead beast back and showed it to the surprised residents of the forest. Its skin afterwards became part of his costume.

Living among the wild things of the forest he grew like them. No deer could run away from him, he could run at full speed without cracking a dry branch, he could track any animal by the prints on the forest floor, while his eyes were as keen as those of an eagle.

The Fair

And Meave was forced to admit that it was likely that he would.

“Quick they were,” said Fergus, interrupting, “yet did I outstrip them, and at the rampart’s outer door I found the child, and the great hound dead beside him. Without a pause I picked up the boy and hoisted him on my shoulder, and thus, with all the heroes following, we came to Conor, and I placed him between the monarch’s knees.”

“So Culain loosed the dog, and with one spring it bounded forth out of the court of the house and over the wall of the rath, making a circuit of the entire district; and when it came back panting, with its tongue hanging from its jaws, it took up its usual position in front of the house, and there crouched with its head upon its paws, watching the high road to Emain. Surely an extraordinarily cruel and fierce and savage dog was he.

Have the child called, that we may take him with us to the banquet.’

“There he saw a sight so curious that he could not tear himself away. At one end of the green stood a group of a hundred and fifty youths, guarding one goal, all striving to prevent the ball of a single little boy, who was playing against the whole of them, from getting in; but for all that they could do, he won the game, and drove his ball home to the goal. “Then they changed sides, and the little lad defended his one goal against the hundred and fifty balls of the other youths, all sent at once across the ground. But though the youths played well, following up their balls, not one of them went into the hole, for the little boy caught them one after another just outside, driving them hither and thither, so that they could not make the goal. But when his turn came round to make the counter-stroke, he was as successful as before; nay, he would get the entire set of a hundred and fifty balls into their hole, for all that they could do. “Then they played a game of getting each other’s cloaks off without tearing them, and he would have their mantles off, one after the other, before they could, on their part, even unfasten the brooch that held his cloak.[35] When they wrestled with each other, it was the same thing: he would have them on the ground before all of them together could upset him, or make him budge a foot.

So the King said he would go, bringing but a small retinue with him.

Now the custom is, that every man of means and every owner of land in Ulster, should, once in a year or so, invite the King and his chiefs to spend a few days, it may be a week or a fortnight, at his house, that he may give them entertainment

And Cormac, Conor’s son, answered eagerly, “I will tell you that story myself, for I was present, and I know the way of it.”

looking out on the hosts who rested at close of day by the forest fires, singing and telling tales, as was their wont after the evening meal, Meave said to Fergus, “Just now you spoke of that little boy as Setanta, but I have heard him called Cuchulain, or Culain’s Hound; how did he get that name?”

15. The Master said, Learning without thought is naught; thought without learning is dangerous.

The Master said, He puts words into deeds first, and follows these up with words.

11. The Master said, To keep old knowledge warm and get new makes the teacher.

1. The Master said, He that rules by mind is like the north star, steady in his seat, whilst the stars all bend to him.

Tzu-kung[8] said, Poor, but no flatterer; rich, but not proud: how would that be? It would do, said the Master; but better still were poor but merry; rich, but loving courtesy.

pious

9. Tseng-tzu[4] said, Heed the dead, follow up the past, and the soul of the people will again grow great.

The Master said, A gentleman will not be looked up to unless he is staid, nor will his learning be sound. Put faithfulness and truth first; have no friends unlike thyself; be not ashamed to mend thy faults.

if he is ready to give his life for his lord, and keeps faith with his friends, though others may say he has no learning, I must call him learned.

The young should be dutiful [2]at home, modest abroad, careful and true, overflowing in kindness for all, but in brotherhood with love. And if they have strength to spare they should spend it on the arts.

In dealing for others, have I been unfaithful? Have I been untrue to friends? Do I practise what I preach?

Smooth words and fawning looks are seldom found with love.

man that is not fond of withstanding those over him and is yet fond of broils is nowhere found. A gentleman heeds the roots. When the root has taken, the Way is born. And to be a good son and a good brother, is not that the root of love?

Yu-tzu[2] said. Few men that are good sons and good brothers are fond of withstanding those over them

NAMED EARTHQUAKE

Hewasthesecondtomagnifyhimself,andnowweshallspeakwhatisspoken of another.

nd this is where we shall explai .boys, Hunahpu and Xbalanque.

And when SevenMacawdied,Hunahpugotbackhisarm.AndChi-malmat,the wifeofSeven Macaw,also died.

Hac: IS THE BEGINNING OF THE DEFEAT AND DESTRUCTION OF- THE DAY OF SEVEN Macaw by the two boys, the first named Hunahpuand the second named Xbalanque. Being gods, the two of them saw evilin his attempt at self-magnification before the Heart of Sky. So the boystalked:“It’s no good without life, without people here on the face of the earth.”“Well then, let’s try a shot. We could shoot him while he’s at his meal.We could make him ill, then put an end to his riches, his jade, his metal,his jewels, his gems, the source of his brilliance. Everyone might do ashe does, but it should not come to be that fiery splendor is merely amatter of metal. So be it,” said the boys, each one with a blowgun on hisshoulder, the two of them together.And this Seven Macaw has two sons: the first of these is Zipacna, andthe second is the Earthquake. And Chimalmat is the name of theirmother, the wife of Seven Macaw.And this is Zipacna, this is the one to build up the great mountains:Fireplace, Hunahpu, Cave by the Water, Xcanul, Macamob, Huliznab,as the names of the mountains that were there at the dawn are spoken.They were brought forth by Zipacna in a single night.And now this is the Earthquake. The mountains are moved by him;the mountains, small and great, are softened by him. The sons of SevenMacaw did this just as a means of self-magnification.“Here am I: I am the sun,” said Seven Macaw.“Here am I: I am the maker of the earth,” said Zipacna.

Theywerepoundeddowntothebonesandtendons,smashedandpulverizedeventothebones.Theirfacesweresmashedbecausethewereincompetentbeforetheirmotherandtheir father,theHeartofSky,namedHurricane. Theearthwasblackenedbecauseofthis;theblackrainstormbegan,rainalldayandrainallnight.Intotheirhousescametheanimals,smallandgreat.Theirfaceswerecrushedbythingsofwoodandstone.Everythingspoke:theirwaterjars,theirtortillagriddles,theirplates, theircookingpots,theirdogs,theirgrindingstones,each andeverythingcrushedtheirfaces.Theirdogsand turkeystoldthem:“You causeduspain,youateus,butnowitisyouwhomweshalleat.

Avcars THERE COMES A HUMILIATION, destruction, and demolition.The manikins, woodcarvings were killed when the Heart of Sky deviseda flood for them. A great flood was made; it came down on the heads ofikins, woodcarvings.he man's body was carved from the wood of the coral tree by theMaker, Modeler. And as for the woman, the Maker, Modeler needed thehearts of bulrushes for the woman’s body. They were not competent, nordid they speak before the builder and sculptor who made them andbrought them forth, and so they were killed, done in by a flood:There came a rain of resin from the sky.

They had no blood, no lymph. They hadnosweat, nofat.Theircomplexionsweredry,thelrfaceswerecrusty.Theyflailedtheirlegsandarms,theirbodiesweredeformed.AndsotheyaccomplishednothingbeforetheMaker,Modelerwhogavethembirth,gavethemheart.Theybecamethefirstnumerouspeople here on the face of the earth.

They cameintobeing, they multiplied, theyhad daughters,they hadsons,thesemanikins, woodcarvings.But there wasnothingintheirheartsandnothingintheirminds,nomemoryoftheirmasonandbuilder.Theyjustwent andwalked wherevertheywanted.Nowtheydid notremembertheHeartof Sky.

Midwife, matchmaker,our grandmother, our grandfather,Xpiyacoc, Xmucane,let there be planting, let there be the dawningof our invocation, our sustenance, our recognitionby the human work, the human design,the human figure, the human form.So be it, fulfill your names:Hunahpu Possum, Hunahpu Coyote,Bearer twice over, Begetter twice over,Great Peccary, Great Coati,lapidary, jeweler,sawyer, carpenter,plate shaper, bow] shaper,incense maker, master craftsman,Grandmother of Day, Grandmother of Light.

face was just twisted. It couldn’t look around. It talked at first, but_ senselessly. It was quickly dissolving in the water.“It won't last,” the mason and sculptor said then. “It seems to bedwindling away, so let it just dwindle. It can’t walk and it can’t multiply,so let it be merely a thought,” they said.So then they dismantled, again they brought down their work anddesign. Again they talked:“What is there for us to make that would turn out well, that wouldsucceed in keeping our days and praying to us?” they said. Then theyplanned again:“We'll just tell Xpiyacoc, Xmucane, Hunahpu Possum, Hunahpu Coy-ote, to try a counting of days, a counting of lots,” the mason and sculptorsaid to themselves. Then they invoked Xpiyacoc, Xmucane.

Indeed—theyhadbetterhaveguardians,”theothersreplied. Assoonastheythoughtitandsaidit,deer andbirdscameforth.Andthenthey gaveouthomestothedeerandbirds:“You,thedeer:sleepalongtherivers,inthecanyons.Behereinthemeadows,inthethickets,inthe forests,multiplyyourselves.Youwillstandand walkonallfours,”theyweretold.

THE HEART OF SKY, NAMED HURRICANE:

And then the earth arose because of them, it was simply their wordthat brought it forth. For the forming of the earth they said “Earth.”

But therewill be no high days and no bright praise for our work, our design, untilthe rise of the human work, the human design,” they said.

life was conceived:

And of course there is the sky, and there is also the Heart of Sky. Thisis the name of the god, as it is spoken.

SOVEREIGN PLUMED SERPENT: Here he isseated, holding a snake in his hand. On hisback he wears a quetzal bird, with its headbehind his, its wings at the level of hisshoulders, and its tail hanging down to theground. From the Dresden Codex.

Plumed Serpent

Whatever might be is simply not there: only murmurs, ripples, in thedark, in the night. Only the Maker, Modeler alone, Sovereign PlumedSerpent, the Bearers, Begetters are in the water, a glittering light. Theyare there, they are enclosed in quetzal feathers, in blue-green.

pooledwater, only the calm sea, only it alone is pooled.

hs IS THE ACCOUNT, here it is:Now it still ripples, now it still murmurs, ripples, it still sighs, stillhums, and it is empty under the sky.Here follow the first words, the first eloquence:There is not yet one person, one animal, bird, fish, crab, tree, rock,hollow, canyon, meadow, forest. Only the sky alone is there; the face ofthe earth is not clear. Only the sea alone is pooled under all the sky;there is nothing whatever gathered together. It is at rest; not a singlething stirs. It is held back, kept at rest under the sky.

in the sky, on the earth,the four sides, the four corners, as it is said,by the Maker, Modeler,mother-father of life, of humankind,giver of breath, giver of heart,bearer, upbringer in the light that lastsof those born in the light, begotten in the light;worrier, knower of everything, whatever there is:sky-earth, lake-sea.

hefourfoldsiding,fourfold cornering,measuring,fourfold staking,halvingthe cord, stretchingthecord63

longperfor-manceand accounttocompletethelightingofallthesky-earth:

a place to see it, a Council Book,a place to see “The Light That Came fromBeside the Sea,”the account of “Our Place in the Shadows.”a place to see “The Dawn of Life,

They accountedforeverything—anddidit,too—asenlightenedbeings,inenlightenedwords.WeshallwriteaboutthisnowamidthepreachingofGod,inChristendomnow.

the Maker, Modeler,named Bearer, Begetter,Hunahpu Possum, Hunahpu Coyote,Great White Peccary, Coati,Sovereign Plumed Serpent,Heart of the Lake, Heart of the Sea,plate shaper, bowl shaper, as they are called,also named, also described asthe midwife, matchmakernamed Xpiyacoc, Xmucane,defender, protector,twice a midwife, twice a matchmaker,

Andhereweshalltake upthedemonstration,revelation,andaccountofhowthingswereputinshadowandbroughttolightby

aISTHEBEGINNINGOFTHEANCIENT WORD,hereinthisplacecalledQuiché.

Until her death on January 26, 1928, Zitkála-Šá continued to work for improvements in education, health care, and legal recognition of Native Americans as well as the preservation of Native American culture. She died in Washington, DC. She is buried at Arlington National Cemetery with her husband. Sharing a headstone, she is memorialized as: “His Wife / Gertrude Simmons Bonnin / Zitkala-Ša of the Sioux Indians / 1876-1936.”[5]

While being sharply critical of assimilation, she was firm in her conviction that Indigenous people in America should be American citizens, and that as citizens, they should have the vote: “In the land that was once his own – America… there was never a time more opportune than now for American to enfranchise the Red man!”[3] As original occupants of the land, she argued, Native Americans needed to be represented in the current system of government.

Sun Dance was the first American Indian opera written. It is a symbol of how Zitkála-Šá lived in and bridged both her traditional Native American world and the world of white America that she was raised in.

Afterwards, Zitkála-Šá spent some time back at home on the reservation taking care of her mother and collecting stories for her book, Old Indian Legends. She also took work at the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) office at Standing Rock Indian Reservation as a clerk. She married Captain Raymond Talefase Bonnin in 1902. They were assigned to the Uintah-Ouray Reservation in Utah, where they lived and worked for the next fourteen years. While there, they had a son, Raymond Ohiya Bonnin.

In 1901, she wrote a piece for Harper’s that described the profound loss of identity felt by a student at the Carlisle Indian School. She was fired from Carlisle.

presented her people as generous and loving instead of the common racist stereotypes that portrayed Native Americans as ignorant savages.

Zitkála-Šá back to the Yankton Reservation to gather more students. She was shocked to find her family home in disrepair. Many people on the reservation lived in deep poverty, and white settlers were occupying land given to the Yankton Dakota people by the federal government.

Again, she chose not to return to the reservation. Instead, she moved to Boston, where she studied violin at the New England Conservatory of Music.[1]

At fifteen years old, she returned to the Institute to further her education. Her study of piano and violin led the Institute to hire her as a music teacher. She graduated in 1895. When she received her diploma, Zitkála-Šá gave a speech advocating for women’s rights.

She returned to live with her mother on the Yankton Reservation in 1887, but left only three years later. She felt that she did not fit in after her experiences at the Institute.

had to undergo ritual bloodletting and self-torture.

But the true nature of Maya society, the meaning of its hieroglyphics, and the chronicle of its history remained unknown to scholars for centuries after the Spaniards discovered the ancient Maya building sites.

He both copied the original K’iche’ text (now lost) and translated it into Spanish

They began to build ceremonial centers, and by 200 ce these had developed into cities containing temples, pyramids, palaces, courts for playing ball, and plazas.

They practiced agriculture, built great stone buildings and pyramid temples, worked gold and copper, and used a form of hieroglyphic writing that has now largely been deciphered.

features the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque, who were transformed into, respectively, the Sun and the Moon

In 2009 archaeologist Richard Hansen discovered two 8-metre- (26-foot-) long panels carved in stucco from the pre-Classic Mayan site of El Mirador, Guatemala, that depict aspects of the Popol Vuh. The panels—which date to about 300 bce, some 500 years before the Classic-period fluorescence of Mayan culture—attested to the antiquity of the Popol Vuh.

It chronicles the creation of humankind, the actions of the gods, the origin and history of the K’iche’ people, and the chronology of their kings down to 1550.

Popol Vuh, Maya document, an invaluable source of knowledge of ancient Mayan mythology and culture

sands dance forever

Ikemefuna had begun to feel like a member of Okonkwo's family. He still thoughtabout his mother and his three-year-old sister, and he had moments of sadness anddepression But he and Nwoye had become so deeply attached to each other that suchmoments became less frequent and less poignant. Ikemefuna had an endless stock of folktales.

Inwardly Okonkwo knew that the boys were still too young to understand fullythe difficult art of preparing seed-yams. But he thought that one could not begin tooearly. Yam stood for manliness, and he who could feed his family on yams from oneharvest to another was a very great man indeed. Okonkwo wanted his son to be a greatfarmer and a great man. He would stamp out the disquieting signs of laziness which hethought he already saw in him.

"Do you think you are cutting up yams for cooking?" he asked Nwoye. "If yousplit another yam of this size, I shall break your jaw. You think you are still a child. Ibegan to own a farm at your age. And you," he said to Ikemefuna, "do you not growyams where you come from?

"It has not always been so," he said. "My father told me that he had been told thatin the past a man who broke the peace was dragged on the ground through the village

And so people said he had no respect for the gods of the clan. Hisenemies said his good fortune had gone to his head. They called him the little bird nzawho so far forgot himself after a heavy meal that he challenged his chi.

"Takeaway your kola nut. I shall not eat in the house of a man who has no respect for our godsand ancestors."Okonkwo tried to explain to him what his wife had done, but Ezeani seemed topay no attention. He held a short staff in his hand which he brought down on the floor toemphasise his points

"Did she ask you to feed them before she went?""Yes," lied Nwoye's mother, trying to minimise Ojiugo's thoughtlessness.Okonkwo knew she was not speaking the truth. He walked back to his obi toawait Ojiugo's return. And when she returned he beat her very heavily. In his anger hehad forgotten that it was the Week of Peace. His first two wives ran out in great alarmpleading with him that it was the sacred week.But Okonkwo was not the man to stop beating somebody half-way through, noteven for fear of a goddess.Okonkwo's neighbours heard his wife crying and sent their voices over thecompound walls to ask what was the matter. Some of them came over to see forthemselves. It was unheard of to beat somebody during the sacred week

But therewas no doubt that he liked the boy. Sometimes when he went to big village meetings orcommunal ancestral feasts he allowed Ikemefuna to accompany him, like a son, carryinghis stool and his goatskin bag. And, indeed, Ikemefuna called him father

emotion of anger

Even Okonkwo himself became very fond of the boy - inwardly of course.

benevolent spirit should not forget to be humble

His father, Unoka, who was then an ailing man, had said to him during thatterrible harvest month: "Do not despair. I know you will not despair. You have a manlyand a proud heart. A proud heart can survive a general failure because such failure doesnot prick its pride. It is more difficult and more bitter when a man fails alone."Unoka was like that in his last days. His love of talk had grown with age andsickness. It tried Okonkwo's patience beyond words.

That year the harvest was sad, like a funeral, and many farmers wept as they dugup the miserable and rotting yams. One man tied his cloth to a tree branch and hangedhimself.

Some farmers had not planted their yams yet. They were the lazy easy-going oneswho always put off clearing their farms as long as they could. This year they were thewise ones. They sympathised with their neighbours with much shaking of the head, butinwardly they were happy for what they took to be their own foresight.Okonkwo planted what was left of his seed-yams when the rains finally returned.He had one consolation. The yams he had sown before the drought were his own, theharvest of the previous year. He still had the eight hundred from Nwakibie and the fourhundred from his father's friend. So he would make a fresh start

His mother and sisters worked hardenough, but they grew women's crops, like coco-yams, beans and cassava. Yam, the kingof crops, was a man's crop.

He hoped to get another four hundred yams from one of his father's friendsat Isiuzo.

would not refuse him

I shall give you twice four hundred yams. Go ahead and prepare your farm

The men then continued their drinking and talking. Ogbuefi Idigo was talkingabout the palm-wine tapper, Obiako, who suddenly gave up his trade."There must be something behind it," he said, wiping the foam of wine from hismoustache with the back of his left hand. "There must be a reason for it. A toad does notrun in the daytime for nothing.""Some people say the Oracle warned him that he would fall off a palm tree andkill himself," said Akukalia."Obiako has always been a strange one," said Nwakibie. "I have heard that manyyears ago, when his father had not been dead very long, he had gone to consult theOracle. The Oracle said to him, 'Your dead father wants you to sacrifice a goat to him.'Do you know what he told the Oracle? He said, 'Ask my dead father if he ever had a fowlwhen he was alive.' Everybody laughed heartily except Okonkwo, who laughed uneasilybecause, as the saying goes, an old woman is always uneasy when dry bones arementioned in a proverb

"Is Anasi not in?" he asked them. They said she was coming. Anasi was the firstwife and the others could not drink before her, and so they stood waiting.Anasi was a middle-aged woman, tall and strongly built. There was authority inher bearing and she looked every inch the ruler of the womenfolk in a large andprosperous family. She wore the anklet of her husband's titles, which the first wife alonecould wear.She walked up to her husband and accepted the horn from him. She then wentdown on one knee, drank a little and handed back the horn. She rose, called him by hisname and went back to her hut. The other wives drank in the same way, in their properorder, and went away

swelling in the stomach

Hold your peace!" screamed the priestess, her voice terrible as it echoed through thedark void. "You have offended neither the gods nor your fathers. And when a man is atpeace with his gods and his ancestors, his harvest will be good or bad according to thestrength of his arm. You, Unoka, are known in all the clan for the weakness of yourmachete and your hoe. When your neighbours go out with their axe to cut down virginforests, you sow your yams on exhausted farms that take no labour to clear. They crossseven rivers to make their farms,- you stay at home and offer sacrifices to a reluctant soil.Go home and work like a man."

His mother had wept bitterly, but he had been toosurprised to weep. And so the stranger had brought him, and a girl, a long, long way fromhome, through lonely forest paths. He did not know who the girl was, and he never sawher again

"Do what you are told, woman," Okonkwo thundered, and stammered. "When didyou become one of the ndichie of Umuofia?

Nwoye was developing into a sad-faced youth

to hate everything that his father Unoka hadloved.

agbala

t was deeper and more intimate than the fear ofevil and capricious gods and of magic, the fear of the forest, and of the forces of nature,malevolent, red in tooth and claw. Okonkwo's fear was greater than these. It was notexternal but lay deep within himself.

His wives, especially theyoungest, lived in perpetual fear of his fiery temper, and so did his little children

In the morning the market place was full. There must have been about tenthousand men there, all talking in low voices. At last Ogbuefi Ezeugo stood up in themidst of them and bellowed four times, "Umuofia kwenu," and on each occasion he faceda different direction and seemed to push the air with a clenched fist. And ten thousandmen answered "Yaa!" each time. Then there was perfect silence. Ogbuefi Ezeugo was apowerful orator and was always chosen to speak on such occasions. He moved his handover his white head and stroked his white beard. He then adjusted his cloth, which waspassed under his right arm-pit and tied above his left shoulder."Umuofia kwenu," he bellowed a fifth time, and the crowd yelled in answer. Andthen suddenly like one possessed he shot out his left hand and pointed in the direction ofMbaino, and said through gleaming white teeth firmly clenched: "Those sons of wildanimals have dared to murder a daughter of Umuofia." He threw his head down andgnashed his teeth, and allowed a murmur of suppressed anger to sweep the crowd. Whenhe began again, the anger on his face was gone, and in its place a sort of smile hovered,more terrible and more sinister than the anger. And in a clear unemotional voice he toldUmuofia how their daughter had gone to market at Mbaino and had been killed. Thatwoman, said Ezeugo, was the wife of Ogbuefi Udo, and he pointed to a man who sat nearhim with a bowed head. The crowd then shouted with anger and thirst for blood.Many others spoke, and at the end it was decided to follow the normal course ofaction. An ultimatum was immediately dispatched to Mbaino asking them to choosebetween war - on the one hand, and on the other the offer of a young man and a virgin ascompensation.Umuofia was feared by all its neighbours. It was powerful in war and in magic,and its priests and medicine men were feared in all the surrounding country. Its mostpotent war-medicine was as old as the clan itself. Nobody knew how old. But on onepoint there was general agreement--the active principle in that medicine had been an oldwoman with one leg. In fact, the medicine itself was called agadi-nwayi, or old woman. Ithad its shrine in the centre of Umuofia, in a cleared spot. And if anybody was sofoolhardy as to pass by the shrine after dusk he was sure to see the old woman hoppingabout.And so the neighbouring clans who naturally knew of these things fearedUmuofia, and would not go to war against it without first trying a peaceful settlement.And in fairness to Umuofia it should be recorded that it never went to war unless its casewas clear and just and was accepted as such by its Oracle - the Oracle of the Hills and theCaves. And there were indeed occasions when the Oracle had forbidden Umuofia to wage

The night was very quiet. It was always quiet except on moonlight nights.Darkness held a vague terror for these people, even the bravest among them. Childrenwere warned not to whistle at night for fear of evil spirits. Dangerous animals becameeven more sinister and uncanny in the dark. A snake was never called by its name atnight, because it would hear. It was called a string. And so on this particular night as thecrier's voice was gradually swallowed up in the distance, silence returned to the world, avibrant silence made more intense by the universal trill of a million million forest insects.

When Unoka died he had taken no title at all and he was heavily in debt. Anywonder then that his son Okonkwo was ashamed of him? Fortunately, among thesepeople a man was judged according to his worth and not according to the worth of hisfather. Okonkwo was clearly cut out for great things. He was still young but he had wonfame as the greatest wrestler in the nine villages. He was a wealthy farmer and had twobarns full of yams, and had just married his third wife. To crown it all he had taken twotitles and had shown incredible prowess in two inter-tribal wars. And so althoughOkonkwo was still young, he was already one of the greatest men of his time. Age wasrespected among his people, but achievement was revered. As the elders said, if a childwashed his hands he could eat with kings. Okonkwo had clearly washed his hands and sohe ate with kings and elders. And that was how he came to look after the doomed lad whowas sacrificed to the village of Umuofia by their neighbours to avoid war and bloodshed.The ill-fated lad was called Ikemefuna

"Look at that wall," he said, pointing at the far wall of his hut, which was rubbedwith red earth so that it shone. "Look at those lines of chalk," and Okoye saw groups ofshort perpendicular lines drawn in chalk. There were five groups, and the smallest grouphad ten lines. Unoka had a sense of the dramatic and so he allowed a pause, in which hetook a pinch of snuff and sneezed noisily, and then he continued: "Each group thererepresents a debt to someone, and each stroke is one hundred cowries. You see, I owethat man a thousand cowries. But he has not come to wake me up in the morning for it. Ishall pay you, but not today. Our elders say that the sun will shine on those who standbefore it shines on those who kneel under them. I shall pay my big debts first." And hetook another pinch of snuff, as if that was paying the big debts first. Okoye rolled hisgoatskin and departed

Unoka to return the two hundred cowries he had borrowed from him more than two yearsbefore. As soon as Unoka understood what his friend was driving at, he burst outlaughing.

Okoye was also a musician. He played on the ogene. But he was not a failure likeUnoka. He had a large barn full of yams and he had three wives. And now he was goingto take the Idemili title, the third highest in the land. It was a very expensive ceremonyand he was gathering all his resources together. That was in fact the reason why he hadcome to see Unoka

He was in fact a coward and could not bear the sight of blood. And so hechanged the subject and talked about music, and his face beamed

I have kola

That was years ago, when he was young. Unoka, the grown-up, was a failure. Hewas poor and his wife and children had barely enough to eat. People laughed at himbecause he was a loafer, and they swore never to lend him any more money because henever paid back. But Unoka was such a man that he always succeeded in borrowingmore, and piling up his debts.

Unoka's band and their dancing egwugwu to come and stay with them andteach them their tunes. They would go to such hosts for as long as three or four markets,making music and feasting. Unoka loved the good hire and the good fellowship, and heloved this season of the year, when the rains had stopped and the sun rose every morningwith dazzling beauty

He was very good on his flute,and his happiest moments were the two or three moons after the harvest when the villagemusicians brought down their instruments, hung above the fireplace. Unoka would playwith them, his face beaming with blessedness and peace.

He was tall but very thin and had a slight stoop. He wore a haggard and mournfullook

lazy and improvident and was quite incapable of thinking about tomorrow. If any moneycame his way, and it seldom did, he immediately bought gourds of palm-wine, calledround his neighbours and made merry. He always said that whenever he saw a deadman's mouth he saw the folly of not eating what one had in one's lifetime. Unoka was, ofcourse, a debtor, and he owed every neighbour some money, from a few cowries to quitesubstantial amounts.

When he walked, his heels hardly touched the ground and he seemed to walk on springs,as if he was going to pounce on somebody. And he did pounce on people quite often. Hehad a slight stammer and whenever he was angry and could not get his words out quicklyenough, he would use his fists. He had no patience with unsuccessful men. He had had nopatience

Every nerve andevery muscle stood out on their arms, on their backs and their thighs, and one almostheard them stretching to breaking point. In the end Okonkwo threw the Cat

Amalinzewas a wily craftsman, but Okonkwo was as slippery as a fish in water

As a young man of eighteen he had brought honour tohis village by throwing Amalinze the Cat. Amalinze was the great wrestler who for sevenyears was unbeaten, from Umuofia to Mbaino. He was called the Cat because his backwould never touch the earth. It was this man that Okonkwo threw in a fight which the oldmen agreed was one of the fiercest since the founder of their town engaged a spirit of thewild for seven days and seven nights.

In life there are some characters who are clever  and very cunning – they will always outwit you. Be  careful not to fall prey to them; neither should you  try to copy their ways because you may not have  the same wittiness or advantages as they do.

Immediately, Hare produced the herb and Jackal had no choice but to share the meal with Hare.

Without Jackal noticing, Hare secretly dug up the roots of the shrub and hid them away

“Say friend Hare, there is one important favor I need to ask of you.”“Yes, friend Jackal, let me know what it is I can do.”“Do you see this herb?” said Jackal“Yes, friend. It is the herb used to cure a tummy  ache.”“Well done friend,” said Jackal. “When we get to my in-law’s place, they will give us food. When I eat the food, I may suffer from a tummy ache.Friend, you will quickly run back to this exact place, to this shrub. Dig up the roots and bring them back to cure me.”

Meanwhile, Jackal, a friend to Baboon, received word on how Hare had tricked his friend and led him to his death. Jackal decided to avenge Baboon’s death

Hare apologized for his friend’s behavior, thanked his hosts and left.

while Baboon slept, Hare stealthily smeared him with the blood of the goat they had just eaten, which he had secretly brought with him to the room.

Hmm, about that … ! As soon as you left my tummy suddenly felt better and I could eat. Now I feel quite strong!”

Baboon panicked and quickly sprinted off to get the herb for Hare’s tummy. Meanwhile, Hare settled comfortably and devoured the whole feast all alone. When he had his fill, he called for the dishes to be removed. Soon, Baboon, huffing and puffing, tumbled into the room with the herb.“Here you are friend, I ran as fast as I could. I found the tree. I dug the roots and I brought  them to cure your aching tummy!”

As they took the first bite of the meal, Hare interrupted Baboon.“Friend, I think that problem is already starting. My tummy is rumbling and is starting to ache.  Do you remember the herb? Rush and get me some of it! Otherwise, I may not survive the night!”

“Well done friend!” said Hare. “When we get to my in-law’s place, they will give us food. When I eat the food, I may suffer from a tummy ache. Friend, you will quickly run back to this exact place, to this shrub. Dig up the roots and bring them back to cure me.”

As was customary, he needed someone to accompany him on this important occasion.  So, he asked his long-time friend and happy-go-lucky fellow Baboon. He readily agreed.

Once upon a time, Hare, tired of living alone, decided it was time to find himself a  companion. He decided to make the journey to the neighboring village to meet his future in-laws.

The people to be afraid of were those who, when injured, kept silent: you could be certain they were plotting mischief and would do harm at night.

His friend said that, because the fowls had made much fuss, it was safe to kill and eat their chicks.

They all made a lot of noise and mother hen tried to chase me but, although there was a lot of disturbance amongst the fowls, nothing else happened

The king then told the hawk that in the future he could always feed on chicks.

When the hawk saw the chicks, he made up his mind that he would take one, so he swooped down and caught the s smallest with his strong claws . As soon as he seized the chick, the cocks began to make a lot of noise. The hen ran after him and tried to make him drop her child, calling loudly, with her feathers fluffed out and making dashes at him.

he saw a lot of fowls near a coop basking in the sun and scratching in the dust.

He then flew around, trying to find some other birds to prey upon but, because all the birds had heard that the hawk had seized the owlet, they hid themselves and would not come out when the hawk was near. He therefore could not catch any birds.

The hawk’s parents advised him to return the young owlet because one could not tell what was in the mind of a quiet or undemonstrative person: they could be plotting some acts of deep and cruel revenge in their minds

hawk that carried a young owlet away whilst the parents watched quietly

It is not good to be a friend with a person that tells lies.

because Kings don't back down on their words, the dog has had to keep barking till today.

He ordered that the tortoise be punished while the dog should be released;

tortoise joked about his wisdom, and revealed what he did to gain the dog's farm.

Meanwhile the tortoise took over the dog's farm.

otherwise, he would be executed.

On the day of the trial, the dog was asked why he stole the yam that he and his family was caught eating. Instead of giving the answer, the dog kept barking.

the dog had to bark at every question; if he did so, he would be released. So the dog agreed.

and lied to him that he had pleaded with the King to release him.

The dog was immediately arrested and the day for hearing and judgment fixed.