Ascheap, mass-produced goods flooded European markets, the Europeans began looking for new markets overseas.

new ways of manufacturing goods were invented which made use of machines powered bysteam, and later by electricity, which made it possible to engage in large-scale factory production.

It was only in the nineteenth century that relations between Europe and the rest of the world were irrevocablytransformed.

Yet in both North and South America the largest number ofnatives died through exposure to European diseases such as the measles.

The European invasion was associated with widespread genocide.

ThePortuguese established outposts in Goa in India, Macau in China, East Timor and Malacca in today’s Malaysia;

From an East Asian point of view,however, the Europeans were nothing but a small contingent of traders who docked at a few ports, conducted theirtrade, and then left.

The Europeans who came back from travels in East Asia were amazed at the wondrous things they had seen.

he Portuguese took the lead in this trade, but they were soonreplaced by the Dutch, and above all, by the Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602.

It was when Vasco daGama rounded the Cape of Good Hope, at the southernmost tip of Africa, in 1497 that the Europeans for the first timediscovered a direct way to travel by sea to East Asia.

. In fact, the word ‘international’ itself wascoined only in 1783, by the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham.

After the First World War most people in Europe formed their own nation-states.

In 1848 this prospect seemed to become a reality as nationalistuprisings quickly spread across the continent.

the idea of self-determination undermined the political legitimacy of Europe’sempires.

Nationalism in the first part of the nineteenth century was aliberal sentiment concerning self-determination –

The Congress of Vienna of 1815, where a settlement was reached at the end of the Napoleonic Wars, was supposedto have returned Europe to its pre-revolutionary ways.

The Frenchnation was from now on to be governed by the people, the nation, and in accordance with the principles ofliberté,égalité et fraternité – liberty, equality and brotherhood.

The revolutions that took place in Britain’s North American colonies in 1776, and in France in 1789, provided modelsfor other nationalists to follow.

A nation, in contrast to a state, constitutes a community of people joined by a shared identityand by common social practices.

The early modern state was a coercive machinery designed to make war and to extract resources from society. Yetat the end of the eighteenth century, this machinery came to be radically transformed.

Diplomatic practices were never powerful enough to prevent war, indeed wars continued to be common, but they didprovide Europeans with a sense of a common identity.

In order to avoid misunderstandings and unnecessary conflicts,the different rulers began dispatching ambassadors to each other’s courts.

These diplomatic practices had their origin in relations between the city-states of northern Italy

Sovereignty and formal equality led to the problem of anarchy. Within acountry ‘anarchy’ refers to a breakdown of law and order, but in relations between states it refers to a system wherepower is decentralised and there are no shared institutions with the right to enforce common rules.

The Treaty of Westphalia, 1648, which concluded the 30 years of warfare, has come to symbolise the new way oforganising international politics.

The state was keen to encourage trade, not least since taxes on tradewere a lot easier to collect than taxes on land.

The early modern state was more than anything an institutional machinery designed to develop and extract resourcesfrom society.

the search for money became a constant concern

which the state might make use of.

e separated from politics but instead as a tool of statecraft which the state could manipulate to serveits own ends. Economic development meant higher revenues from taxes and gave the kings access to moreresources which they could use in their wars.

With the Reformation in the sixteenth century the notion of a unified Europe broke down completely as the Churchbegan to split apart.

he process started in Italy where northerncity-states such as Florence, Venice, Ravenna and Milan began playing the pope against the emperor, eventuallymaking themselves independent of both.

The Empire – known as theHolyRoman Empire – was established in the tenth century in central, predominantly German-speaking, Europe.

The Church was the spiritual authority, with its centre in Rome

Over the course of the years there have been many different kinds of states, yet this chapter is mainly concerned withthe European state and with European developments

tates are obviously very different from each other, but they are also similar to eachother in important respects.

There are a lot of states in the world – in fact, according to the latest count, thereare no fewer than 195 of them.