Extending their use to provide night vision, X-ray vision, and long-range zoom capacities to the normally sighted raises considerably different issues.

victim of a brain-stem stroke became the first recipient of a brain-to-a-computer interface, enabling him to communicate on a computer by thinking about moving the cursor n6; these bionic brain implants, developed by researchers at Emory University allow a comput-er interface to be operated by the power of thought. An artificial vision system, announced in January 2000, enables the blind, using a cortical implant, to navigate independently, to "read" letters, and througha special electronic interface to

"this is nothing new"

frankly believe that the situation in 1945 was simpler than the one we now face: Thenuclear technologies were reasonably separable into commercial and military uses,

the unilateral US abandonment, without preconditions,of the development of biological weapons. This relinquishment stemmed from therealization that while it would take an enormous effort to create these terrible weapons,they could from then on easily be duplicated and fall into the hands of rogue nations orterrorist groups

It isthis further danger that we now fully face—the consequences of our truth-seeking. Thetruth that science seeks can certainly be considered a dangerous substitute for God if it islikely to lead to our extinction.

how much danger do we face, not just from nuclear weapons, but from all ofthese technologies? How high are the extinction risks

t is not possible to be a scientist unless you believethat the knowledge of the world, and the power which this gives, is a thing which is ofintrinsic value to humanity, and that you are using it to help in the spread of knowledgeand are willing to take the consequences

Unfortunately, as with nuclear technology, it is far easier to create destructive uses fornanotechnology than constructive ones

I have never had the feeling that I wasdesigning an intelligent machine.

In my own work, as codesigner of three microprocessor architectures—SPARC, picoJava,and MAJC

The Industrial Revolution

program that attempted to solve a problem, after which the machine quickly checked thesolution. The computer had a clear notion of correct and incorrect, true and false. Were myideas correct? The machine could tell me. This was very seductive

Biological species almost never survive encounters with superior competitors.

as difficult as it is for me toacknowledge, I saw some merit in the reasoning in this single passage.

We only point out that the fate of the human race would be at the mercy of themachines.

In that casepresumably all work will be done by vast, highly organized systems of machines and nohuman effort will be necessary.

because therobots couldn't be conscious.

we were going to become robots or fuse withrobots or something like that,

So, does neuroscience mean the death of free will? Well, it could ifit somehow demonstrated that conscious deliberation and rationalself-control did not really exist or that they worked in a shelteredcorner of the brain that has no influence on our actions.

doesn’t neuroscience show thatour brains make decisions before we are conscious of them suchthat our conscious decisions are bypassed?

have the capacities for conscious deliberation and self-control thatI’ve suggested we identify with free will

So, if people mistakenly take causal determinism tomean that everything that happens is inevitable no matter whatyou think or try to do, then they conclude that we have no free will

We act of our own free will to the extent that we have theopportunity to exercise these capacities, without unreasonableexternal or internal pressure. We are responsible for our actionsroughly to the extent that we possess these capacities and we haveopportunities to exercise them

We should be wary of defining things out of existence.

But they are mistakenon both counts.

neuroscience and psychology can actually help us understand howit works.

deserving credit forachievements.

Not in the sense we think.

Furthermore, psychiatrists and other experts on human behaviorshould be eliminated from the initial judicial proceedings

it will still be necessary to incarcerate indi-viduals found guilty of certain criminal acts. This is rationalized invarious ways including the following: To a), protect society; b),protect the offending individuals from society; c), provide suchindividuals with appropriate psychiatric help; d), act as a deterrent(the act of incarceration and the presence of a criminal codeforming part of the environment); and e), alleviate the pain of thevictim. The proposal is a pragmatic one, based on the belief thatthe welfare of society at large is more important than the welfare ofthe individual offender.

I have argued that one of thereasons that individuals have been so reluctant to question thereality of free will is the belief that it would be difficult for societyto function under a system in which this concept was abandoned

Ourentire morality and judicial system is dependent on everyoneaccepting that they are agents of their own misdeeds,and those whodon’t acknowledge this are—by legal definition—insane.

one of the reasons for the popular acceptanceof the notion of free will is the constant awareness of consciousthought processes that seem to affect our behavior.

This would provide acausal component for WILL; however, WILL would then lose its“freedom”—it would then simply be a product of GES

human being has a degree of free will. That freedom is notradical, however, and it is curtailed by a number of internal andexternal events and constraints.”

Westill know too little about the human mind to affirm categoricallythat it is a mere animation of neuronal activity lacking the powerto affect this activity.

Thefirst point is that, at least in some instances,what atfirst glance may appear to be stochastic might simply reflectmicroenvironmental differences and may not be the direct con-sequence of some inherent stochastic property of atomic particles.

Rather, dif-ferences in genetically identical twins may reflect not only envi-ronmental factors but also biological stochasticism.

In the 17th century, Descartes, in addressing what is oftenreferred to as the mind—body problem, proposed that the bodyobeyed the laws of the physical world, however the soul (and hencethe mind), acting through the pineal gland, was not restricted bythese limitations (5).

an individualcannot be held responsible for either his genes or his environment.

sociobiology, which studies the biological basis of social behavior.

You reply that if your android lacks free will because of (1) and (2), then humans lack free will, too.

It’s not that we don’t want to enjoy our impulsive thoughts (Mmm, cake), it’s merely that we want to endow the frontal cortex with some control over whether we act upon them (I’ll pass)

Neuroscience will be better able to say why people are predisposed to act the way they do

we are not the ones steering the boat of our behavior, at least not nearly as much as we believe

The lesson from all these stories is the same: human behavior cannot be separated from human biology.

Because of dopamine’s role in weighing the costs and benefits of decisions, imbalances in its levels can trigger gambling, overeating, and drug addiction—behaviors that result from a reward system gone awry.

Although acting on such drives is popularly thought to be a free choice, the most cursory examination of the evidence demonstrates the limits of that assumption.

After the removal of the remaining tumor, his behavior again returned to normal.

everyone wanted answers

The question that will soon confront us is whether or not effective neuropharmaceuticals are just another way to enable us to choose goodness.

Taking a simple shot to prevent cocaine use or a tablet to calm violent impulses seems tame by comparison.

real Ludovico therapies become available.

"The question is whether or not this technique really makes a man good. Goodness comes from within. Goodness is chosen. When a man cannot choose, he ceases to be a man."

Ludovico Technique," a revolutionary treatment for violent criminal behavior, is supposed to make criminals sick.

should we blame the child himself or his parents? Or his school? Negligent social workers?

Why do we not react in the same way to a defective man: a murderer, say, or a rapist? Why don't we laugh at a judge who punishes a criminal, just as heartily as we laugh at Basil Fawlty? Or at King Xerxes who, in 480 BC, sentenced the rough sea to 300 lashes for wrecking his bridge of ships? Isn't the murderer or the rapist just a machine with a defective component? Or a defective upbringing? Defective education? Defective genes?

critics and advocates of pre-crime techniques

major profiling, which reinforces pre-existing profiling issues such as race and socioeconomic status.

In Chicago, an algorithm has been created to predict its inhabitants’ potential involvement with violent crime, which creates a Strategic Subject List - known colloquially as the “heat list” - a comprehensive list of who it considers to be the most dangerous people in the city.

widespread monitoring doesn’t stop just at phones and location sharing apparently

The film captures an increasingly monitored world in which every step, action and transaction can, and often is, being monitored. “Why sit and drink cold coffee in a hot car when you can just track them on their phone?” one official says of modern-day surveillance.

Maybe free will enters at the last moment, allowing a person to override an unpalatable subconscious decision

seven seconds before

whether to hit a button with one's left or right hand

You may think you decided to read this story -- but in fact, your brain made the decision long before you knew about it.

leading to artificial limbs

You can imagine how tedious it is if you want to write a letter by using a cursor to pick out letters on a screen," said Prof Haynes. "It would be much better if you thought, 'I want to reply to this email', or, 'I'm thinking this word', and the computer can read that and understand what you want to do."

we will have more and more ability to probe people's intentions, minds, background thoughts, hopes and emotions.

certain degree of certainty."

we are also denying people who aren't going to commit any crime the possibility of proving their innocence.

brain imaging has been used to identify tell-tale activity linked to lying

The team used high-resolution brain scans to identify patterns of activity before translating them into meaningful thoughts, revealing what a person planned to do in the near future.

fy the sceptic

this we can infer that no-one will prevent him from committin

Algy intends, will continue to intend, and will eventually carry out his intention to commit the speeding offence, we should have no reason to prefer

shouldn't it be the same with punish

Ben and Algy do not have knowledge, but only rational belief about A

mutatis mutandis for syn

open the possibility of 'sync- punishment' - punishment while the offence is being committed

uition that it is wrong to punish someone VN for a crime he has not committed, and it is, indeed, ofte

The idea of holding people accountable for their predispositions ratherthan their actions poses a challenge to one of the central principles of Anglo-American jurisprudence: namely, that people are responsible for theirbehavior, not their proclivities — for what they do, not what they think

Does that mean the person should be dumpedback on the street? Absolutely not. You have a car with the brakes notworking, and it shouldn’t be allowed to be near anyone it can hurt.

It, too, lighted up every time I thought of a face. “This is apotentially very serious legal implication,” Jones broke in, since thetechnology allows us to tell what people are thinking about even if they denyit.

t the same time, skepticsfear that the use of brain-scanning technology as a kind of super mind-reading device will threaten our privacy and mental freedom, leading someto call for the legal system to respond with a new concept of “cognitiveliberty.”

To suggest that criminals could beexcused because their brains made them do it seems to imply that anyonewhose brain isn’t functioning properly could be absolved of responsibility

canbedeployedonanunwillingsubject

ncrementalvalueinaccuracy

thatscientificevidenceandexperttestimonycanbeintroducedonlytohelpthejuryreachamoreinformedjudgment,nottobethefinalarbiteroftruth.

paytheirownmoneytodeclarethatthey'retellingthetruth,"Huizengasays.(Neithercompanyhassetapriceyet.)

Cephos'firstclients–ideally"peoplewhoaretryingtoshowthatthey'rebeingtruthfulandwhowanttouseourtechnologytohelpsupporttheircases."

Iviewitasnodifferentthandevelopingadiagnostictest

whorespondedbypressingabuttononahandhelddevicesotheywouldn'thavetospeak

Promptedbyasignalinthemirror,Ilaunchintoaninternalmonologueabouttheintimatedetailsofmypersonallife.Idon'tspeakaloud,becauseevenlittlemovementsofmyheadwoulddisruptthescan.Ifocusinsteadonformingthewordsclearlyandcalmlyinmymind,asiftoatelepathicinquisitor.

usedmorefrequentlyinparoleandchild-custodyhearingsandasacounterintelligencetoolinthewaronterrorism

partlybecauseitseffectivenessdependsheavilyontheintimidationskillsoftheinterrogator

ourfundamentalnotionsofprivacy.

Neuroimaging technologies do not threaten to usurp therole of juries as fact-finders

There is no reason tothink that jurors will be any less capable of critically eval-160uating EEG or fMRI tests than they are of evaluating othertypes of scientific evidence

forensic memory detection technology does not, in its cur-rent state, satisfy the reliability standards for legal admis-sibility

EEG andfMRI techniques need not raise special privacy concernsthat make them any more objectionable than accepted tech-niques such as polygraphs or tissue samples

fMRItechniques identify differences in images of brain activation25produced during truthful and deceptive acts by holding asubject’s head stationary inside a strong magnetic field tomeasure regional blood oxygenation levels.

polygraph machines,

memory-modifying treatments

Many people, it appears, are quite open in principle to the idea of deliberately manipulating memories, if doing so could benefit the patient

Could planting ‘beneficial’ false memories be the next big thing for tacklingobesity, or myriad other health complaints from fear of the dentist to depression

Would this fictional therapy be acceptable?

The scenario sounds like a plot from a science fiction novel, but it’s not necessarily as implausible –at least in principle –as it might seem

that some well-intentioned person could have deliberately planted a vivid false memory of this fictional event in your consciousness, believing that the memory would change you in ways that would benefit your life

? Initially, itseems like an obvious answer, but messing with memories is far from a simpleprocess and to snip away at one memory is to inevitably infringe on others.

We have to understand the plight of thosewho are prisoners to bad memories, to awful memories, to horrible memories

Most radically, ECT is now being used to alter and destroy memories

“pretense treatment.

hysteria

drug U0126,

On the other hand, rapid or radical changes of memories might cause a disruption of our unified self image.

If a memory manipulation technique threatens personal numerical identity, then it should be regulated from an ethical viewpoint

we are re-sponsible for conserving our memories even if they are uncomfortabl

It has also been noted that using propranolol might violate post-traumatic growth (PTG). This is the capacity to deal with psychological difficulties in the future, which is obtained in the process of overcoming a traumatic event [10].

propranolol does not threaten psychological continuity, and only dampens the link between memory and emotion.

memory erasure causes ethical questions.

unless the memory is verytraumatic,

In theory, such memories could either have theiremotional strength reduced or be blotted outaltogether.

When theymade the mice produce an excess of this protein,memories of painful events were completelyeliminated.

Needless to say, there are many accounts of what morality is, or of what it is to bemoral.

have modified mousepox to make it lethal in 100% of mic

biological weapons

New sleep- and awakeness-controlling medications such as modafinil appear topromote heightened function with small risks of direct side effects and dependency.28The effects of modafinil and amphetamine on sleep-deprived aviators were found tobe similar, but with modafinil showing fewer side effects.29 Naps are more effective inmaintaining performance than modafinil and amphetamine during long (48h) sleepdeprivation than short (24h), and naps followed by a modafinil dose may be moreefficient than either individually.30 The drug also improved attention and workingmemory in sleep-deprived physicians.31 Modafinil also allows sleep when appropriateand has frontally acting cognition-enhancing effects

The US military routinely uses both modafiniland Ritalin for its pilots.

The NR2B ‘Doogie’ mice demonstrated improved memory performance, bothin terms of acquisition and retention.5 The modification also made them more sensitiveto certain forms of pain.6

As a consequence, there was ever more human mind power that could be pooledtogether through the network of language, both oral and written.

butsimply that human beings were already 40,000 years ago smart and social enough tobegin to develop oral languages which enabled them to share knowledge with eachother.

we conclude that if researchinto cognitive enhancement continues, as it is likely to, it must be accompanied by researchinto moral enhancement

enhancing one area of the brain we are most likely sacrificing the natural optimal functioning of another.

The idea that we should avoid enhancement is unreasonable and inconsistent, given that as Buchanan and many others point out, “enhancement is an ancient and characteristic human endeavour.”3I believe that opponents of enhancement disregard the fact that enhancements, whether natural or deliberate, have always existed.

Cognitive enhancement is not new.

anti-enhancement views come from a bias towards the status quo.

‘‘Enhancement,’’ however, only captures some of thephenomena of interest here. In many cases, assessmentand detection technology such as brain scans may be used,which do not alter the person being scanned. In othercases, instead of enhancing some cognitive trait, ‘‘di-minishment’’ might be desired—for example, reducingone’s memory consolidation or temporarily reducingone’s empathy (cases we will discuss below).

In some cases—say, a human resources manager responsible for evaluatingand firing workers—being empathetic might not be desired,whereas being dispassionate would be

capability

To some extent,they already occur, although in unstated or at least lessexplicit ways.

.Alpha Accountingstrongly promotes this practice, particularly as com-petition with other firms heats up. So, Alice wouldhave to agree to use such techniques as warranted forspecific situations. The company, of course, wouldprovide the modifications or reimburse the cost.

dentify major types of technologies, theareas of employment where they might be used, and themoral and legal principles most likely to frame debatesabout use.

The causes of the difference in their behavior must lie in the ratsthemselves. It seems plausible that humans, like rats, are spreadalong a continuum of readiness to help others.

famous experiments by Stanley Milgram andPhilip Zimbardo

Yet people can, and often do, behave in very different ways.

here are indications thatcognitive performance might improve as compared to baselinelevels

electroconvulsive therapy(ECT) (Abrams, 2002)—the administration of a brief-pulsecurrent of about 800 mA delivered using electrodes appliedto the temporal lobe for medical purposes.

the effects of prolonged use

Invasive technologies use electrodes directly inserted inthe brainor placed on its surface

cognitiveenhancementwe mean the improvement of the processes ofacquiring/generating knowledge and understanding the worldaround us.

you could read in some heightened state of neuronal connectivity.

Instead it's like all genuine concerns---it has to be given due weight and then balanced against the potential benefits of these technologies.

governmentsmay view these as very important for national productivity and they may subsidize them in the way they now subsidize education for the very same reason.

This is especially clear in the context of prescription drugs. Right now if you go to Wal-Mart there are over one hundred and thirty drugs that used to be on patent and have now gone off patent and gone generic, and a month supply of each of these drugs is only four dollars. Now that's a lot cheaper than the cognitive enhancement drug that you get at Starbucks.

there might be very serious problems of inequality

neuroplasticity,

using tools to make ourselves smarter may be part of humans' nature.

we should be free to choose what we want as long as we’re not harming someone.’

What happens if I don’t make the cut? What if I’m derailed by a bad test score, or a mangled chemistry course?

academic performance is different in important ways from baseball, or cycling

ncreased use of such drugs could raise the standard of what is considered “normal” performance and widen the gap between those who have access to the medications and those who don’t —

era of doping

a dozen of their colleagues had admitted to regular use of prescription drugs like Adderall, a stimulant, and Provigil, which promoteswakefulness, to improve their academic performance.

one is permitted to destroy it to save the mother’s life.

In fact, until forty days after conception, the fertilized egg is considered as “mere fluid.” These facts form the basis for the Jewish legal view on abortion.

So, can God be said to be a person? Yes. And how do we tell if he is a person? We simplylook at the requirements of being a person, such as speaking, being aware of others, havinga will, loving, etc., and we see that God most certainly expresses the attributes ofpersonhood.

"When you place dolphinsin a situation like that they respondin exactly the same way humansdo," said Dr Lori Marino. "They areaccessing their own minds andthinking their own thoughts."

every individual cetaceanhas the right to life", "no cetacean should be held incaptivity or servitude, be subject to cruel treatment, orbe removed from their natural environment", and "nocetacean is the property of any state, corporation,human group or individual"

Thus, early abortions, experiments on human embryos and early fetuses, and withdrawal of feeding tubes from PVS individuals do not in themselves represent violations of the rights of persons

Do patients and surrogates have the moral right to insist on life-sustaining treatment even after permanent loss of consciousness? I tend to think not, even though stopping treatment would offend many people on religious or moral grounds. (Note that we already permit physicians to declare death by whole-brain criteria even when family members object.) But in order to limit distress to patients and surrogates who won’t accept the higher-brain criteria of personhood, it may be more compassionate not to mandate withdrawal of feeding tubes as a strict policy, but rather to educate people about the nature of PVS and the futility of treatment.

This initially seemed an attractive option to me, but now I’m more troubled by it, seeing as it would set a precedent of using individuals who were not legally dead simply for the benefit of others

Imagine that someone were to state in their living will that should they succumb to PVS, their body may be maintained on life-support and used not only as a sourceof organs but for testing drugs, training medical and nursing students on intubation and other procedures, or even dissection

It’s difficult to imagine our selves as disconnected from the particular bodies we have.

What is the relationship between the soul and the body (or the mind and the brain)?

It is generally held that persons who are equals should qualify for equaltreatment.

Our rational calculus holds that thepatient is in far greater danger from harm from a ruptured appendix if we donot act, than from the surgical procedure and anesthesia if we proceedquickly to surgery.

One might argue that we are requiredto take all of the above principles into account when they are applicable tothe clinical case under consideration. Yet, when two or more principlesapply, we may find that they are in conflict.

“to help and do no harm”

If thereis mora l progress, however,ther e mustbe fixedmoralstandardsagainstwhi ch we ca n judg e our actions and po li

. This view of morality isofte n calledthedivin e commandth eory,for it hold s that what make s an ac -tion ri gh t is that God commandsit to be don

Theirdisa greement,the n, is aboutwhat kind of a thingthe fe tusis, not aboutwhatmak es an acti on right

egalitaria

Sub jective relativis m—the doctrinethat what makesan act ion right forsomeone is that it is appro ved by that per so n— cl aims that moral judgmentsare alwaysrelativeto the in divid

ion. Thenwhat Les ter did wa s wro ng. But one and thesameactioncannotbe bo th rightand wr

mo ral beliefs,how ca n the re be any ab -solu te moralstandards

What mak es an acti onrigh t? or Wha t makesa perso n go

Is it wrong to kill som eoneto puthim out of his mi

,did thingsto im provethe li ves of some of the Ger

th eir motivesto be goodor ba

hey may be the productof prej udice,fear , or cultural con dit ion -ing

mi sery, he did it at his brother’s request. Wha t Les te r did,they said, was not an act of malice.It wa s an act of l

Did Lest er Zygmanikdo the rightthing?

We appeal to tradi tion when we ar gue that somet hingmust be true (or good ) becauseit is part of an es ta blishe

1. Phenomenap.2. If hypothesish were true, it would pro vide the best exp lanat ion of p.3. Therefore,it’s proba ble that h

preced ents. A pr ecede nt is a ca sethat has alreadybeen de cided. Lawyersoften tr y to convincejudge s of themeri ts of their case by citing

uct ion . Ess ential ly, they ar e ar gu -ing that if this drug has a certain effe ct on the animals,then it’ s pr obable thatit will have the same so rt of eff ect

This would be astrong argume nt only if your sa mp le is sufficiently lar ge an d su fficientl y repr e-sentati ve of the entir e group of

Enumerativeinductionis the sort of reas oning we us e when we ar rive at ageneralization about a gro up of things aft er obs erv ing only so me membe rs ofthat gro