Economic anthropology provides rich and understanding perspective on how diverse modes of exchange are currently shaping and how is it going to be being shaped everyday life and time.

There are three ways of integrating economic relations, social relations, and distributing material goods: * Market exchange * Reciprocity * Redistribution

The community of Zambia's secondhand market present an explanation that secondhand clothes can go in and out of capitalist modes of production and exchange.

For example, we might buy clothes that we like, wore it for a few months or few years, donating to a charity shop like Goodwill, the shop will either sell it or donate it to a recycler who will ship the clothes to Zambia where it will be sold in the Zambia secondhand clothing market, then someone will buy it and they may realize that it doesn't suit them completely, and they will ask someone to tailor the clothes for their suits. The person will either pay the tailor or do the tailor a favor to repay them.

This example shows how diversifying our economic lives are considering that the clothes moved in and out of formal and informal markets.

In Zambia's market in Southern Africa, it is a big market for second-handed clothes. The clothes that are donated to a charity shop such as Goodwill will be examined. Good clothes will be sent to Central America while the low grade of clothes will go to Africa or Asia.

Zambia get their secondhand clothes by multiple wholesale firms that imports secondhand clothes

Most of the second handed clothes that are donated are shipped to Zambia. Zambia makes up 50% of second handed clothes market.

In some countries, the informal economy is the huge source of the country's economy.

The term "informal economy" can be misleading the economy may be formal and organized after all but even so, it is not governed or regulated by the authorities or the government officials.

Informal economy includes a range of activities that are unregulated and untaxed by the state. This includes people that are informally (self-proclaimed) self-employed and those who works for other people's business.

Those coffee farmers produce a lot of food that their family consumes but if they ever hit a rock bottom where they struggle, they have the chance to look for another job or plant another crops.

The whole point for those farmers is that they wanted their family's economic as smooth as possible. This means trying to do as much things as possible to ensure their long-term survival.

Although these farmers are producing something for the global market, they aren't fully locked to the capitalist mode of production. This includes owning their property and selling it for the price of a guaranteed value.

This may seem like a good deal, but it requires a lot of hard work since everyone needs to be on board with the plan.

Organizations must dedicate their time to nurturing their relationship with the coffee importers, roasters, advocates, and consumers who support all their hard work through promotion and purchases.

This is an annoying process such as attending receptions when buyers visit, dressing up in traditional clothing to pick coffee on film for marketing materials, and putting up with questions from nosy anthropologists.

There are around 20-25 million small farmers growing coffee in more than 50 countries around the world. Most of the farmers are in a organized in a assisting program that allows their coffee to be sold as fair-trade certified.

Fair-trade certified is a trading partnership that seeks for greater equity in the international trade market all while being honest and respectful.

Fair trade supports farmers and workers to combat poverty and strengthen their livelihood by setting their price of products as minimalist as possible while providing farmers the access of information regards to the market and their economy that can promote better wages and living conditions.

For example, many of the indigenous corn farmers in southern Mexico and Central America also grow coffee to earn some money to buy school supplies for their kids, building supplies for their homes, clothing and other things that they can't produce themselves.

Semi-subsistence farmers were once known as peasants. They live both outside of the global capitalism and state societies. They use their labor to grow food for their families to eat while producing small amount of commodity for sale.

In a way, economic anthropology is used to find alternatives to capitalism.

Although the capitalist society sounds like a employing and selling good society, we also produce and exchange goods and services outside of our jobs. We engage in diverse economic practices everyday.

Economic anthropologists said that people have different reaction when it comes to being apart of the capitalism group. For example, subsistence farmers may produce a small amount of crops in order to earn money for their equipment and tools that they can't make such as machinery tools.

In the domestic and tributary mode of production, workers can control their labor but with capitalist mode of production, they can't control their rules of labor

Keep the wages low allow capitalists to profit off of worker's labor. This means selling goods for a high price all while paying the worker who produce the products a low wage.

In the domestic and tributary modes of production, workers own their production property but with the capitalist mode of production, workers don't own their production property such as a factory.

The capitalist mode of production occurs very recently. It was started during the bloom of industrial revolution in 17th century and 18th century.

Some of the tributary system are unorganized whereas some have positive effects.

Production is controlled politically rather than through the controller of the farmer.

The relationship between producers and rulers are conflictual

The state society depends on the local communities and the tribute that is collected go towards the higher class people such as the emperor

Each person's social status and job is organized around the person's background

Each tributary mode society shares several features.

Foraging societies are characterized by the group ownership of the means of production (the resources used to produce goods in society such as land for farming or factory), lower rate of social domination, and sharing

The domenstic describes the lives of foragers and the subsistence farmers (people who raise plants and animals for their own consumption rather than selling it to others.)

There are three modes of production in human history * Domestic * Tributary * Capitalist

Mode of production is the social relationship through which human labor is used to transform energy from nature using tools, skills, organization, and knowledge.

Economic studies refer to what people want and how that decision affects their economy. Economic anthropology doesn't assume what people want or why people act the way they are. They focus on studying people's economic and their decision and coming up with their conclusion.

How human used the materials for goods

Production is transforming nature and raw materials into necessity goods

Since human are alike, economic anthropology study people's activity and behavior that affects their lives. This can be how people produce, exchange, and consume products.

The commodity chain for agricultural products begins in the farm where plants and animal foods are produced. Instead of selling directly to the consumers, farmers sell their products to the distributor as the farmer will get more by selling it to big company. Big company will then sell the product even higher price at their several location of stores.

Many of our food comes from everywhere in the world. This is called the world system. There are a lot of steps of bringing the food to the location and this is called the commodity chain.

Although agriculture helps a lot, food shortages, malnutrition, and famines are still a problem despite a lot of work and returned positivity with agriculture. This is because the food distribution is uneven.

There may be places where they would overproduce food, while the another place will be the opposite. As a results of under-produce, places like these will hike the prices of food, causing people to not be able to afford food.

Although the development of agriculture can be seen as a significant technological achievement, agriculture also led us to to invest more time and labor in our food supply while directing us to social inequality, violent conflict between communities, and environmental degradation.

Agriculture is a critical factor that explains the origin of social class and wealth inequality. The more advance and confusing the economic becomes, the more chance an individual manipulates the economy through agriculture for their own benefits. Agriculture societies were the first to enable hard labor and enslavement.

Agriculture also enables a wide variety of labor. With the techniques that allows agricultural growth of crops to go smooth, this enables people to go into many different field of jobs since they don't have to worry about taking care of crops any further.

The growth of population allowed the advancement of better farming technologies. At the same time, this means that farmers will have to put a lot of time, efforts, and money into perfecting everything

The reliance on a single plant species as a food source. Mono-cropping leads to decreased dietary diversity and carries the risk of malnutrition compared to a more diverse diet.

The stable/important food from the culture.

A period of innovation in subsistence technologies that began 10,000 years ago and led to the emergence of agriculture. Neolithic means “new stone age,” a name referring to the stone tools produced during this time period.

The growing of plants and animals through the use of technologies

New technologies or techniques of farming didn't start from being an accident, it was started from countless experiences of horticulture.

Beans can be beneficial to the nitrogen in the soil, which can also improve other plants nearby

Yams in the Trobriand Island is believed to have a lot of magic which shows the close relationship between the farmers and their crops.

As mentioned earlier, large amount yam means more respect for the man. This is why man will usually build a special yam house to store the yam. Those yams must be gifted or else they will be seen as stingy or mean. As a results, they won't have too many yams and they also won't be receiving any yams from anyone.

The chief has the biggest yam house but at the same time, they must use his yam wealth to support the members of the community who may need yams throughout the year.

Plants and crops are not only regarded as food, they are also regarded as a way to build social relationships. In the Trobriand Islands, yams are a huge deal since the number of yams for an individuals are regarded as their reputation.

Men grows the yam in their yam garden but unlike the pastorialism and foraging culture, women have the power to own the yam and the men have to share it with their daughters, their sisters, and even with their wives’ family members. Other yams must be given to the chief or be preserved for special occasions such as festivals and weddings.

Growing several crops prevent growing just one particular food. Horticulturalist can grow more than one food all within together.

Growing crops in the same location can lead to several problems such as the lack of nutrients of the soil, the bugs that can be harmful to the crop, and plant diseases.

To avoid this, horticulturalist often move their crops around frequently. This also often means that they have to make rooms for the crops to be moved. This often mean cutting trees and setting a controlled fire to burn the undergrowth like shrubs and weeds.

Once the field has been abandoned, the soil will immediately begin to restore and renew itself. After a several years, horticulturalist may return back to the field and reuse it.

Because this requires huge spaces, horticulturalists tends to not move their home nearby the field and instead, live in a home that is within walking distance.

Although horticultural crops are easy to grow, they don't have too many proteins and other important nutrients on them. To balance their nutrients, the horticulturist also raise pigs, chickens, and haunting for fish in order to get the necessary nutrients.

Horticultural societies are common around the world. Majority of the horticultural crops can be easy to grow without too many labors.

Horticulture can differ, they can either sell their crops for income, or keep their crops for consumption or to share it with others in the community.

Horticulture uses the technologies that are available to them. For example, they may use Oxen to pull a plow instead of using mechanical farm equipment.

Horticulturalist move their farm field a lot to use the best location that can grow their food.

Despite all of the good things, pastoralists are facing many troubling things such as overpopulation from the tourist, droughts and famine, and even civil war in some instances. Also due to global warming, limited resources can lead to tense relationship with the neighbors since everyone is competing for resources.

The Maasai have a complex land-managing system that involves rotating the area of planting every season to preserve both the grass and the water.

The grazing practices from the pastoralist allows for an improvement on the health and biodiversity of the ecosystem.

The land and the biodiversity can generate millions of dollars on tourism, which can benefit the economies of the country.

Generally, resources such as water, land, and other sources are owned by everyone in the community. But this also means that the pastoralist community may not respect resources that they don't own.

For example, pastoralist do not preserve any grass or water resources for the future. Although this may sound like the pastoralist are destroying their community, as it turns out, they have their own rules to follow that can in return, be able to conserve the resources.

Foragers survive based on the natural resources and having to move constantly, which leave them having no assets to them whatsoever. In the other hand, pastoralism have animals as their properties (money) as well as their personal items like clothing or jewlery since pastoralists don't move as frequently as a forager.

While Maasai women lacks the political and economic power compare to the men, they have other Maasai women for comfort and support. They also take care of their children as a way of their authority.

Since more marriage are arranged by the elders, this allowed women to engage in love affairs with other men while keeping it a secret. If another women talks about the affair, the teller will be seen as betrayer in the group. But if the women is caught having the affair, this means they are resisting the male authority and ownership of them, which won't look good for them in public.

Just like the forage community, the equality of gender in Maasai doesn't really exist. Women have no authority of the cattle and instead, they have to do all of the work with the cows such as milking it several times a day and removing the manure. This doesn't just applied to the Maasai community, this also happens in many pastoralist societies.

An example of a pastoralism is the Maasai community. Maasai is a community in east Africa that depends on cows. The Maasai measures an individual's wealth and social status by the number of animals a person owns. To achieve this achievement, Maasai family work together to raise the animals. This also means that a household will have multiple wives and large number of children to create more labor power of raising the animals.

Pastoralist and foragers are two different communities. The chores of caring large number of animals are a tremendous amount of work that foragers doesn't get to experience.

Pastoralists likes to trade and when they trade with farmers, they are able to not only help balance their diet, they can also get their hands on things that they can't produce.

The goal for most pastoralists are not to produce animals that are considered food, they are trying to raise animals that can benefit them even while the animal is still alive.

Depending on the part of the environment and where the pastoralists are, some can raise either animals that can be used for food such as cows, goats, sheep, and pigs, or they can raise animals that are primarily used for transporting goods and loads.

Animals that are used for carrying loads.

To avoid either the competition and conflicts with neighbors, or to avoid the government restrictions, people move several times a year along with their livestock. This subsistence system is called the nomadic pastoralism.

Pastoalism is a subsistence system where people raises a group of farm livestock (animals)

The transition from foraging to agriculture is often described as the Agricultural Revolution. Scientist said the transition took a long time to transit. For example, even though dog wasn't an important food source, they are beneficial towards the hunters who wants to hunt something and towards people who uses dogs as a protection.

When studying the subsistence, anthropologist can get a insight of either the historical ecology (the study of how human cultures have developed over time as a result of interactions with the environment) or the built environment (The human-made things such as land and buildings.

We are not living in a natural environment world. Although in the recent years, human have been altering the planet's ecosystem, this has been happening long since human have been in existence. No part of this planet is really 100% "natural."

Foragers have been phasing out due to many factors such as conflicts and competition for resources from the non-foragers community and the government policy of forcing them stay in one place have jeopardized the Forager's community.

Foragers have been living along with the farming populations for hundreds or even thousands of years.

But in today's timeline, we know that Sahlins' conception of foragers were overly romanticized. We also know that depending on the environment, foragers can either be relaxed or be hardworking.

In the 1960s, the idea of foragers were changed in the anthropological perspective when Marshall Sahlins suggested that foragers were living in a relaxing and easy life where they spent their day enjoying and socializing, which leads to stronger community and family bonds.

In 1651, English philosopher Thomas Hobbes was the first scholar that commented on foragers for being "nasty, brutish, and short." This was done due to the mindset of ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism.

The wealth differences and social inequality that aren't common in a foraging community have separated the community.

In the example of Kwakwa̱ka̱’wakw, since there are a lot of salmon in that area, people started to pursue other occupation, working their way to become a trader, or even becoming the "chiefs" (the leader or the ruler).

While women are seen as a helper who cooks the food in a gathering, they aren't seen as socially prestigious (they don't get the respect that the men receive)

Foragers also shares food as it is a social norm and a measure of a person's goodness.

Because foragers moves around a lot, they don't have any wealth on them.

Foraging can be challenging for the young and the elderly. Young people learn the necessary skills and make contribution until they are teens. Elderly people won't be able to have the body skills of producing enough food for themselves and will need to be cared by others.

Large families and community isn't suitable for foraging since they have a lot of mouth to feed, meaning they have a lot of pressure to find food.

Foraging society doesn't have many people and is very small.

Foragers know a lot about their own ecosystem. Using their knowledge, they are able to learn and know more of different resources.

Many forager food may not be suitable for people in other country or culture such as the US.

Foraging societies have what is called the broad spectrum diet. It is where they eat the resources that is based on what's available to them.

Foragers fishes for fish, hunting for animal protein, and gather berries and wild crops to survive. They must know the source's information such as where to be found, when to be harvest, and how to prepare them.

Foraging is the term for a subsistence system that replies on wild plant and animal that are available in the environment as a food resource.

It isn't possible to categorize society into one of each modes since society combines one or more of the strategy into their subsistence practices.

There are four general types of food system that are known as modes of subsistence. The modes are used to divide the ways of how each society obtain foods. Each cultural subsistence system is based on the environment that is suited for the strategy in order to survive.

These modes are:

*Foraging: describe societies that rely on wild plant and animal food resources.

*Pastoralism: describes a system where people raise groups of animals.

*Horticulture: raising crops.

*Agriculture: cultivates (develop) domestic plants and animals using technologies that can be use in a particular environment land.

The grouping divides different approaches into immediate return system and delayed return system.

Subsistence systems plays in everyone's life. One of which is for every family or household to find a way of putting food on the table. This is called the domestic economy.

All of the aspects of culture overlaps with one another. For example religion ceremonies are able to improve food supply as well as putting the spotlight of the demands and challenges of obtaining food on the spotlight.

Anthropologist found that everyone has a role in the substance system (how one obtain or acquire food.) Everyone plays either one or two role of either being the producer, distributor, or the consumer of food.

Modern anthropological studies of subsistence system involves insights and perspectives in biology, chemistry, ecology, and the wide varieties of ethnographic techniques.

As it turns out, human history has a connection between population growth and cultural innovation. This means that as human keep on growing, so will the farming techniques that are able to generate more crops and resources.

Thomas Malthus argued that as the population grows, this means the resources that are available are decreasing.

The term carrying capacity is used to measure the calories to calculate the population in a particular land.

To study the differences of each subsistence system from a variety of perspectives, anthropologist used the approach of counting the calories that an individual consumes every day.