know your audience.

When the war ended and the US military departed from the island, they took the goods that they brought to the island. This experienced traumatized the residents of Tanna since their enjoyed disappeared. They believe that a ritual must be performed in order to attract John Frum and the material wealth that he controls, back to the island. Each year on February fifteenth, many of the island’s residents construct copies of U.S. airplanes, runways, or towers and march in military formation with replicas of military rifles and American blue jeans.

The rituals have not succeed the goal but when asked why this ritual is being continued, they responded that why won't give up any hopes.

This John Frum custom is sometimes called a cargo cult, a term that is used to describe rituals that seek to attract material rewards. At the same time, it can oversimplify the complex motivations involved in the rituals. This means it can lead to dangerous beliefs that may distort the understanding of the practice.

All rites of revitalization originate from difficult or catastrophic situation. An example of rites of revitalization can be seen on the island of Tanna in the South Pacific. During WWII, many islands in the Siuth Pacific were used by the U.S. military as temporary bases. Tanna was one of the island.

Tanna was formerly an isolated community but during WWII, they experienced an extremely rapid transformation as the U.S. military introduced modern conveniences such as electricity and automobiles. The Tanna people treated this as gifts from a god or from an ancestral spirit name John Frum.

Rites of intensification is common around the world. They're rituals that gather people and unify them to create a sense that they belong in a community.

In the island of Pentecost in Vanuatu in the South Pacific, there is a ritual call Nagol land diving ceremony which is held every spring. The diving ensure a good harvest by impressing the spirits with a dramatic display of bravery. Before and during the ceremony, men from the community will construct wooden towers that are sixty to eighty feet high, and collecting tie ropes that are made from tree vines that will be wrapped around the jumper's ankles. The women will prepare special costumes, dances for the occasion, and will take care of the diver who may be injured during the dive.

Interestingly, this diving ritual can also be a rite of passage since boys can be recognized as a men by jumping from high portions of the tower witnessed by elders of the community.

Rites of passage can also be a transition where children will have to undergo a process in order to become an adult. This is common around the world.

In Xhosa communities in South Africa, they would go through a transition to become an adult through the three ritual stages. - In the separation stage, the boys will leave their home and get circumcised. They can't express any distress or signs of pain during the procedure. Afterward, they will be living in isolation while they heal. - In the liminality stage, they couldn't talk to anyone but the boys that are also doing the process. This will allow the boys to build bonds with one another. - In the incorporation stage, they are to return home, they will be recognized as men, and will learn the secret stories of the community.

In the description of rites of passage (a ceremony designed to transition individuals between life stages), Arnold Van Gennep noted that there are three stages where the rituals are carried out. * Seperation: Individuals are removed from their current social identity and begin preparation to enter the next stage of life. * Liminality: The liminal period that follows is a time in which individuals undergo tests, trials, or activities that are designed to prepare for their new social roles.<br /> Incorporation*: Individuals return to the community with a new socially recognized status.

A large amount of anthropological research has focused on identifying and interpreting many communities' religious rituals. They can be categorize into types based on their goals.

One type of ritual is a rite of passage, it is a ceremony designed to transition individuals between life stages.

The second type of ritual is a rite of intensification, it's an action that's designed to bring community together after a crisis event.

The third type of ritual is the Revitalization rituals, which is also used in a crisis event. It is an attempt to solve a serious problem such as war, famine, or poverty through a spiritual or supernatural intervention.

The easiest observed elements of any religious belief system are rituals. Rituals have a its purpose or goals. Rituals can also be seen as symbolic. The objective and activities involved in rituals can have more than one meaning. For example, the white color of the wedding dress here in the U.S is a traditional symbol of purity.

In Buddhism, it is being represented by karma, a moral force in the universe. For example, being kind toward others may give someone a positive karma, while doing actions that are disapproved in Buddhism teach such as killing an animal create negative karma. The amount of karma will determine how the individual will be reborn, or reincarnated.

There are many religions that follows the reincarnation rules. Overall, being rebirth in a human form is considered good fortune since human have the ability to control their own thoughts and behaviors.

Buddhism demonstrates the strong connection between spiritual beliefs and rules for everyday behavior. There is no god or gods in Buddhism, people who practice Buddhism use techniques such as meditation to achieve the necessary insight that will lead to a meaningful life and achieving the goal of nirvana, which is to be release from suffering.

Religious beliefs are an important element of social control since these beliefs help defining the acceptable behavior and the punishment which includes supernatural consequences. For example, if someone were to perform theft, murder, adultery, dishonesty, and jealousy, they have violated the commandments which will bring disapproval from other members of the religious community and also being punished by god.

Anthropologist categorize the belief systems organized around a god or gods through the terms monotheism and polytheism.

Monotheism religions recognize a single god. Examples of the monotheistic religion are Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.

Polytheistic religion include several gods. An example of a polytheistic religion is the Hinduism.

The most powerful non-human spirits are gods. There is no universal definition of a "god" that are recognized by all people. Gods are extremely powerful in terms of religion since god have personalities or qualities that are recognizable and relatable to human.

But in today's world, we know that the evolution of religion are considered misguided. No belief system is inherently more complicated than another.

Religions based on the idea that plants, animals, objects, and even natural phenomena like weather have a spiritual or supernatural element are called animism. For example, for some people, dreaming is a form of spiritual beliefs. Some people may perceive as traveling to another place or communicate with their deceased members of their family when dreaming. This is the basis for all religious system.

Many people believe that the spirit of an individual still exist after they have die. Spirits or "ghost," remain on Earth and continue to play an active role in the lives of their families and communities.

Because of the spirits, many cultures have traditions where they would respect the dead. When treated properly, ancestor spirit can be the messengers to god and we can request something through prayers or requests.

If they are displeased, ancestors spirits will take actions for revenge such as giving illness and suffering to their ancestor's spirit.

Many people believe that humans have a supernatrual or spiritual elements that coexists that are in our natural body. This element is called "soul." Soul has variety of names in different culture but overall, it has four parts:

• A transcendent soul that stays in the spiritual realm even when a person is alive

• A life-soul that is attached to the body tha can't be moved any other time other than through dream.

The idea of mana has spread far beyond its original cultural context. For example, players in the card game Magic: The Gathering use mana as a source of power to battle wizards and magical creatures. This is an example of cultural appropriation, which is the act of copying an idea and distorting its original meaning.

Many religious system are organized around belief in a impersonal supernatural force. This is call animatism.

Another shared characteristics among most religions is the concept of the supernatural. The supernatural form can take on many forms. Some supernatural entities are anthropomorphic, having human characteristics. Other are more generalized such as the power of the wind.

Most cosmologies raises the question of how they should be interpreted. Are the cosmology stories regarded as truth in the culture that the story is originated, or are the stories metaphorical and symbolic? There isn't a question since each individuals from another culture may disagree with other cultural rules.

Religious cosmologies are ways of explaining the origin of the universe and how something became a reality. A cosmology can be an origin story, an explanation for the history, the present state, and the future of the world and the origins of people, spirits, divinities, and forces that populate it.

Despite the variety of supernatural beliefs found in cultures around the world, many belief have some common elements.

The first one would be the cosmology. It an explanation for the origin or history of the world. It provides a big picture explanation of how human life was created and the perspective on how power works in the world.

The second is the belief in the supernatural. It is a belief that is beyond the direct human experience. These include worshiping a god or gods.

The third characteristic would be the rules governing behavior. It gathers the individuals as a group and they will share their spiritual belief with one another.

The fourth element is rituals. Rituals are behaviors or practices that are formal, stylized, and repetitive performed as a social act. The rituals often serve a religious purpose and are usually supervised by religious specialists.

Repulsions

A symbolic approach to religion treats religious beliefs as a kind of "text" or "performance" that can be interpreted by the outsiders. But because of this text and performance being interpreted, it can also present some misinterpretation to an outsider. Because of this different interpretation, religious beliefs and practices makes the study of religion a challenging topic in cultural anthropology.

The study of symbolic approach on religion developed in the mid 20th century and it presented a new way of analyzing supernatural beliefs. Clifford Geertz suggest that religion is a way to enact or make visible important cultural ideas.

Sigmund Freud believed that religion is the institution that prevents us from acting upon our deepest and most awful desires. These desires can never be acknowledged, let alone acted on, because of the damage they would cause to society

Karl Marx called religion as "the opium of the people." He sees religion as an ideology that justify the inequalities in power and status. In his perspective, religion created an illusion of happiness that helped people cope with the economic difficulties of life under capitalism.

Marx believed that the Christian church helped to support the political and economic inequality of the working class by encouraging people to reach toward the afterlife, where they could expect to receive comfort and happiness. He argued that the conformity advocated by religious leaders as a means of reaching heaven also persuaded people not to fight for better economic or social conditions in their current lives.

Cultural ideas about things that were “dirty” or “impure” influenced religious beliefs. The kosher dietary rules observed by Jews are one of the cultural idea rules

Malinowski believed that religion can provide shared values and behavioral norms which can unit people. Religion played an important role in building connections between people through the shared definition of sacred and profane.

Sacred objects or ideas are things that are treated with great respect or care. Example of sacred would be god or gods.

Profane objects or ideas are things that are treated with disregard or contempt.

Once a person or a thing has been designated as sacred, they would celebrate it through rituals as a way to unite communities. This is called collective effervescence, which is the passion or energy that is created in the group of people who share the same thoughts and emotions.

During Malinowski's research at the Trobriand Island, the Islander participated in an event called the kula ring, a tradition that required men to build canoes and sail on long and dangerous journeys between neighboring islands to exchange ritual items. Malinowski realized that the mission is similar to an ordinary sailing trip for fish.

Malinowski found that on a long voyage journey, the men doesn't have much control over the journey and that they are scared many things can go wrong. Religious rituals can be a way to reduce anxiety among the islander.

Sir James Frazer was the first to understand why cultures develop various kinds of spiritual beliefs. Many people focused on the ways how religion addressed human needs.

Bronislaw Malinowski believed that religious beliefs met psychological needs. He observed that religion is born through the real tragedies of human life and conflict between human plans and realities.

All the different dialects merged bc the newspaper was in one language

The anthropological research around the world confirmed that rituals associated with beliefs in supernatural play a significant role in building community life, providing rules or guidelines for behavior, and bonding members of a community to one another.

religion can be defined as "the means by which human society and culture is extended to include the nonhuman.

In order to study supernatural beliefs, anthropologist must prepare and use their cultural knowledge and strive to understand beliefs from insider's perspective. Assumptions from one culture on another is likely to lead to misunderstand. But, even as religion is a belief, it brings people of a community together.

The word "religion" is not a universally recognized idea. Many cultures have different belief or practices that are "religious". For example, there are societies that believe in supernatural beings, but do not call them "gods". The concept like "heaven," "hell," or even "prayer" doesn't exist in many societies. The divide between “religion” and related ideas like “spirituality” or even “magic” is also murky (not clear) in some cultural contexts.

Do Catalysts control the direction of a reaction?

Why is it actually favorable for a cell to not be constantly energetically favorable to create a chemical reaction? Why does catalysts help control metabolic flux?

Is this a typo? I think it should be "1" since it's working on the basis B1, which is {x^3, x^2, x^1, x^0}. Or am I missing something?

Another factor for the gender inequality is the social environment. Positive social relations can correlate the gender relations. The environment can heavily depict the gender equality and the roles of the society.

Women's work doesn't give them the control or ownership of what they produce. In many cultures, women are engage in agricultural labor where the fields are owned and controlled by their husbands' families or by a landlord (all man.) Women have little authority or prestige over their control and rights.

But in some cultures, women are seen as being respected and equal. Each cultures and society exist in different terms when it comes to the gender.

Many woman-related areas and fields are also being studied. This includes the representations of women in medical professions, images in popular culture, and the international development policies that had ignored gender.

Many American anthropologists "returned home" after seeing the diversity of women's lives in their own society. These includes working-class women, immigrant women, and women in/from various ethnic and racial groups.

Recent researches have been focused on improving the ethnographic and archaeological record by re-examining old materials. Some examinations include the cause-effect relationships to better understand how gender systems work.

Others have explored the single topic such as menstrual blood, cultural concepts of masculinity, and infertility across each culture.

In a society that segregates women, schools have also been segregating girls and boys. This was very common in the late 19th century and early 20th century U.S and also nowadays in some countries.

For example, there can be no female faculty members teaching traditionally male subjects like engineering at all-women colleges in some societies.

A way for women to navigate "male" spaces is by adopting routes, behaviors (avoiding eye contact), and/or clothing that create separations.

It's impossible to separate the genders completely. This means that all gender, female particularly, can't avoid being in the public space that are dominantly male space. For example, rural women will pass through the more-public spaces of a village to fetch water and firewood. Women shop in public markets, though that can be a "man's job." A girl can take public transportation and travel through public "male" spaces.

The gender division between public and private/domestic is symbolic that emphasizes the gender ideology and social separations between males and females. This includes regulating sexuality and marriage, and male rights and control over females.

This allows places to separate genders such as a mosques, sex-segregated schools, and the separations of "ladies compartments" on trains in India.

The societies of a "public" vs "private" places is a recent development in the society. The public sphere is associated and are often dominated by males . The private or domestic sphere is primarily associated with women. This is called the domestic-public dichotomy.

For example in India, the male has their own "lounging" space where other male family members gather together to talk and meet. The women's pace typically focus around the kitchen or other sites of women's activities.

Anthropologists have been continued to investigate cultural differences in gender. So far, they found although all societies distinguish "femaleness" and "maleness," There are gender categories that exist in some societies.

For example, Native Americans group Mohave recognize four genders: a woman, a woman who acts like a man, a man, and a man who acts like a woman.

We can see that in some societies, third intermediary gender is recognized. This used be called "berdache", but over the years, it is now seen offensive and outdated since it is derived from a French word with a derogatory meaning. Now, it is called two-spirit, which was chosen by the Native American.

Murdock's found that although men primarily perform tasks such as planting crops, milking, and generating fires in majority of the culture, there are also cultures where women do these jobs.

For example, weaving is a gender responsible job with 61% of weavers being woman, 32% of weavers are men, and 7% of society will have both woman and man weaving. This shows that gender role differ from one culture to another and that they are not biologically determined.

George Murdock found that some tasks in these societies such as hunting and trapping are almost done by men, while tasks such as cooking and fetching water are done by women. This was used in the argument that there are biological differences between sexes in some cultures. Since there are biological differences between sexes in some cultures, this means that there are women who hunted while men cooked and fetched water in some culture.

Mead's finding have cause some controversy over the years with people challenging the results of Mead's findings. Some thinks she is painting a simple picture of gender roles and not really diving deeper with the results, while argued that her findings are similar to the findings that linked gender and attitudes and how their behavior can differ depending on each culture.

In Tchambuli, Mead found a tribe where different gender roles did exist. One sex was the dominant, efficient, and asserted and has leadership in tribal affairs, while the other sex liked to dress up in filly clothes, wear makeup, and even giggles a lot. This is very similar to the gender roles that are found in the U.S.

One twist of this is that in Tchambuli, the dominant gender would be female, while the one who wears frilly clothes and makeup are the male.

In Mundugumor tribes, it is the opposite. Both men and women are fierce, competitive, and violent. Both sexes doesn't like their children and would physically punish them. Both gender would play a role of what Americans would call the male gender role.

Margaret Mead was the first anthropologists to study cultural differences in gender. She found three tribes in New Guinea that have different gender role with each other.

In the Arapesh tribes, both women and men spent their time with their children in a loving way and also, the gender roles didn't exist. Both sexes perform what Americans would normally call the female gender role.

emotional appeals + logical reasoning = Legitimacy

Not a good thing to do.

Yes, very true! We have to make sure we don't do this.

know your audience.

Yes, we don't want tomatoes thrown at us either

All about the balance.

All things that we need to look for and incorporate into our writing.

The contrast between the phrases made a huge impact on how I thought about the topic

fascinating how this happens.

how does the person writing come across in terms of emotion

Typicality = how representative it is

real life example.

give people something to work with.

Why word choice matters

word choice is everything!

I've noticed this! They are very no-nonsense and unemotional.

It's human nature

something to keep in mind when writing.

so true!

The serf didnt try. They ratted ppl that tried to get them to rise up

1825-1855

Doing whats good for the country RIGHT NOW. not what was. none of the past

2nd in command.

They ended up being a constitutional monarchy

like a civil war. more ppl die from this than the unification. this is where the organzied crime jumps in (mafia). mafia was the south

Northern italy didnt like the south. The south was rural. The north was more industrialized

His group was known as the redshirts. He was in south america, came during the rev to see what was going down

what was this? Just describe

He was the leader but was too lazy to do anything. His minister cavour stepped up and unified italy

referring to the nationalistic movement that is coming

Gender-differentiation is not only applied to a small scale societies, every country's religions have traditionally segregated males and females one way or the other.

There are also societies that are segregated by gender. It will see one gender as potentially threatening. For example, female bodily fluids such as menstrual blood can be dangerous and damaging to men. Men see this a impure and polluting in ritual context.

In another hand, some cultures see menstrual blood as a positive power. There are cultures where the public will celebrate a girl's first menstruation.

Gender-specific religious rituals and gender-identified tools are also possible. There are some cases of "male" and "female" foods, rains, and even languages.

For example, in the Nu Shu writing system were used primarily for women in China in the 20th century.

Even societies with binary gender system can also be associated with the practices of being male or female. For example, both male and female may farm, but both gender will have two different roles in the farm.

These cross-cultural examples demonstrates that traditional rigid binary gender model in one culture is not universal or necessary. While all culture recognize at least two biological sexes, they also created at least two or more gender roles based on the genitals visible at birth.

Individuals with ambiguous genitals, also known as "intersex" are common. Intersex individuals makes up 5% of the human births.

In some cultures including the US, they used to force children into one of the two binary categories, even if it requires surgery or hormone therapy. But in other places, they create a third gender category that has a meaningful identity and role to perform in society.

A well-known example of a non-binary gender system is often called a third gender (gender that offers one or more gender roles other than male and female). These individuals are usually biologically male but adopt female clothing, gestures, and names. They try to avoid sexual desire and sexual activity and will go through religious rituals such as blessing or cursing couples' fertility and performing at weddings and births.

Hijra may also undergo a voluntary surgical removal of genitals through a "Nirvan", or rebirth operation. Some hijra are males born with special external genitals, such as a particularly small penis or testicles that didn't fully descend.

A common assumption is that all cultures divide human into two genders. This is called a dualistic or binary model of gender.

However, some cultures gender contains more than two genders that an individual can select. An example of this would be from pre-contact Native America. Anthropologist such as Ruth Benedict identified that the Native American were living in a relatively gender-egalitarian horticultural society.

For example: man would do the work and wear clothing normally associated with females. In some instances, they would eventually marry a man. Early European ethnocentric reports often described it as a form of homosexuality.

The theories of biological determinism have been challenged by other anthropologists. We know that cultures are the one that created the gender ideologies of the roles of each gender. For example, what is considered "man's work" in some societies can be "woman's work" in other. What is "masculine" and "feminine" picture can be applied as interchangeable in other culture.

Gender and sexual ideologies were based on biological determinism. It is the belief that biological differences between human populations.

The biological differences between males and females leads to the fundamentally different capacities, preferences, and gendered behaviors. It suggest that gender roles are rooted in biology and not culture.

During the nineteenth and mid-twentieth century European and U.S. gender ideologies, the sexual preference was "naturally heterosexual". This means that "masculine" men were "naturally" attracted to "feminine" women and vice versa.

But homosexuality was not only depicted as a sexual preference, but also gender-inappropriate role behavior, down to gestures and color of clothing. This is very apparent with the old stereotypes of gay men as "effeminate" and lesbian women as "butch".

This separations is the results of the beliefs that are rooted both in biology.

But in different cultures, people in the Middle Ages viewed as having strong and often insatiable sexual drive and capacity. This means that it was believes that woman's organs were only used for reproduction.

There was a time where it was believed that males and females were born with different intellectual, physical, and moral capacities, preferences, tastes, personalities, and predispositions for violence and suffering.

Gender is a culturally constructed concept. Gender is the meanings, values, and characteristics that are assigned based on a sex of a person, such as masculinity and femininity. Femininity refers the the cultural expectations that we have of girls and women, while masculinity refers to the expectations we have of boys and men.

Gender roles refers to the set of expectations about tasks, attitudes, and behavior that are culturally assigned based on sex and gender. As we grow up, we learn these expectations develop out gender identity and our beliefs about ourselves as female and males.

Sex is the differences between females and males. Females have two chromosomes while males have one X chromosomes and one Y chromosome.

The first difference is the genetals that boys and girls develop in the womb, which is how doctors determine the gender of the baby. This first difference is called primary sex characteristics The second difference is the development during puberty. This is called secondary sex characteristics. This is where boys will have deeper voices, more body hair, and more muscles. Girls will develop breasts and wider hips and begin menstruating as nature prepares them for possible pregnancy and childbirth.

this happens to me while i'm reading I will stop during because I don't know the meaning of a word or phase. If I would just wait a moment and continue reading the text might go on to define the meaning of what I just read.

this is a skill also related to the critical thinker which comes a little further into the text.

Vocabulary

Style of writing.

Purpose behind the meaning of the work. Check closely to the literacy work.

Deeper understanding of literacy work

They weren't unified yet. Most people wanted a small state. They wanted it to be purely germanic. All german speaking and culture.

Napoleon's nephew. He didn't have his uncles spark

The people were not happy with him.

Ironic bc Greece was a part of the Holy Alliance and was not stopped.

Was not a reformist. Russia was considered going backwards at this time. He was tsar for like 30 years

In Russia. Revolution lasted a month. They were liberals who got shot.

Knew Britain had the US's back. They cant come and colonize anymore

He was very conservative. He wasnt able to stop the revolts

He was convservarive. Religion played a role in his gov. He was hell bent on putting revolutions down.

They didn't punish France. Indeminy= a financial fine. They gave them an indeminy

It is sort of like a NATO. trying to put down revolutions of wars

test

This is where he decides to do it, but he is actually vulnerable and expressing himself and his feelings on the topic of her birthmark, but still wants to go through with the plan.

Here, she is pretty much stating that she does not care what happens to her, as long as he is happy, and he is contempt with the decision. She literally is risking her life to make her man happy and free of the burden he feels is upon him, because her birth mark feels like a marking, she can't get rid of.

These paragraphs to me are very important because this is where he thinks about the effect it may have on her and he really contemplates the actions that should be taken. He decides to kind of be selfish, but she also understands and wants to make him happy instead of herself.

Aylmer's wife birth mark is really weighing in on him and his thoughts, and this is kind of where he begins to think of ways to remove this from his wife heavily because it is always on his mind.

Here he is trying to make good out of the birthmark and trying to overlook his wife's very different characteristic.

This is speaking about her beauty and if she had not had the mark, then his affection for her and the way he views her sometimes would be different.

Make you feel connected to others

Singing is good for the soul reducing anxiety

The USA not being connect with their religion are falling into depression by not practicing that’s why many people don’t like working or have a hard time living life

Rituals have benefits

Rituals makes people more confident and less stressed

Women were forced to conceal there body from head to toe.

No freedom of speech and thought

Find God

I have serious doubts on this one.

This is about sn 1/2

This is about when elimination reaction is not possible.

In the U.S, ethnogenesis has led to numbers of new ethnic identities. These identities include African American, Native American, American Indian, and Italian American.

Slaves that were brought to the US during the colonial period primarily came from Central and Western Africa and were represented by dozens of ethnic heritages that had unique languages, religions, and cultures that were lost due to slaves not permitted to speak their language or practice their customs and religions. Over time, a new unified identity emerged among those descendants, but the identity continues to evolve with different names and labels such as "colored" (early 1900s), "Negro" (1930s-1960s), "Black" (late 1960s to present), and "African American" (1980s to the present).

Ethnic groups and ethnicity are like race; they are socially constructed identities that are created at a particular moments in history under particular social conditions. Ethnic identities shift and are recreated over time across societies.

Anthropologist call this process ethnogenesis, where people identify the emergence of new ethnicity in response to changing social circumstances. For example, ancestors that came from Ireland may identify themselves as Irish Americans and generation of their ancestors as Irish, but at one point, people living in that part of the world identified themselves as Celtic.

While there are various conflict between different ethnic groups and European immigrants in the U.S, overall, these descendants of those groups today have been group into a category of "white."

In the U.S, the descendants of the various European immigrant groups can still hold a large symbolic such as celebrating traditional holidays or cooking family recipes. Although they may not speak their ancestor's language and have lost most of all of the cultural customs and traditions that their ancestors brought to the U.S, they can still self-identify as the heritage of where their ancestors came from by having a strong pride to their ethnic background.

In the U.S, ethnic identity can be represented through a symbolic in nature. Sociologists and anthropologists use the term symbolic ethnicity to describe limited or occasional displays of ethnic pride and identity that are primarily for public display.

These can be things that represent their ethnics identity such as “Kiss Me, I’m Irish!” buttons and bumper stickers, Puerto Rican flag necklaces, decals of the Virgin of Guadalupe, replicas of the Aztec stone calendar, and tattoos of Celtic crosses or of the map of Italy in green, white, and red stripes

Ethnicity refers to the degree to which a person identifies with and feels an attachment to a particular ethnic group. Ethnicity is subjected to change and many view their ethnicity as an important element of their personal and social identity. Many things such as psychological, social, and familial factors play a role in ethnicity.

As mentioned earlier, ethnicity can change overtime. For example, children of Korean immigrants who are living in an overwhelmingly white town might choose to self-identify themselves as "American" during their middle school or high school years to fit into the social gap. This identification can be changed to "Korean," "Korean American," or "Asian American" in college or later in life as their social settings change or from a desire to connect more strongly with their family history and heritage.

The cultural characteristics used to define ethnic groups vary; they include specific languages spoken, religion practiced, and distinct patterns of dress, diet, customs, holidays, and other markers of distinction.

In some societies, ethnic groups are geographically concentrated in a particular region.

The term race and ethnicity is very similar if not, overlapping from one another. Both race and ethnicity are both based on common ancestry and shared cultural traits.

Race is a social construction that defines groups of humans based on the physical and/or biological traits that are distinguishable to others.

An ethnic group claims a distinct identity based on cultural characteristics and a shared ancestry that are believed to give its members a unique sense of people-hood (the state of belonging in a race or nationality community) or heritage (cultural traditions.)

Although Japan no longer prohibits marriage between burakumin and non-burakumin (today, approximately 75% of burakumins are married to non-burakumins), but the prejudice and discrimination still exist, particularly among older generations.

Employment for the burakumin remains low-paying occupation that involves many physical labor despite the advanced education in Japanese society. Burakumin only accounts 60% of the national average household income.

Burakumin's stereotypes include being unintelligent, lazy, and violent. Many burakumin men account for a significant portion of Japan's professional athletes in popular sports such as baseball and sumo wrestling. This is similar to the US where racially stigmatized groups have found a gap where they are able to move forward in professional sports.

Japan's race society is more diverse and does not associate with the Western society or African slavery. Many Korean, Chinese, Indian, and Brazilian immigrants increase since the 1980s, and the number of children who had a Japanese and one non-Japanese parent has increased since the 1950s, driven by the American who were stationed in the military.

Yet, one segment of Japanese population known as "burakumin" illustrate the diffidence in Japan. Burakumin are determined by their physical and genetic different from other Japanese people, are a "disgrace" to the community. The burakumin are the descendants of people who worked dirty, low-prestige jobs that involved handling dead and slaughtered animal during feudal era of Japan in the 1600s to the 1800s. They were forced to live in a community that are separated from the rest of society and had to wear a patch of leather on their clothes to symbolize their burakumin status, and were not permitted to marry non-burakumins.

Scholars agree that the race relations are more relaxed and gentle in Brazil than in the US, but they have their differences on what this is the case. Some have suggested that this had to do with the implementations that were set during the colonial era.

In the U.S, people were not fond of interracial marriage and on top of that, rules such as one-drop rule and Jim Crow laws that segregate the races have made the U.S more divided. In contrast, with the early adoption of sexual and marital union between the Portuguese settlers, it made more sense that Brazil has turned out differently compared to the US.

Afro-Brazilian activist has grown substantially since the 80s, inspired by the Civil Right movement in the US and the actions taken by the Brazilian government since the early 2000s. Brazilian government's strategies is to implement U.S style policies that takes on the education and employment to increase the number of Afro-Brazilians' professional ranks and decrease the economic disparity.

Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, Brazil’s president from 2003 through 2011 have made tremendous deal that promotes the racial equality among the Afro-Brazilians. Lula has also appointed four Afro-Brazilians to his cabinet, appointed the first Afro-Brazilian justice to the nation's supreme court. This has established the racial equality in the government office.

These recent enforcement have greatly improve the racial democracy that has been the central component of its national identity for decades.

There are significant economic differences between Brazilians. According to government statistics, pretos (Black Brazilians) have higher unemployment and poverty rates than other groups in Brazil. Also, brancos (white) earn 57% more than prestos (black) for the same occupation. Furthermore, the vast majority of Brazilians in leadership posistions in politics, the military, the media, and education are branco (white) or pardo (brown). Inter-racial marriage also occurs more frequently in Brazil than in the US, but most of those marriage are between prestos (blacks) and pardos (browns), and not between branco and either pretos or pardos.

This sort of mistreatment has led some some scholars to describe Brazil as an example of a pigmentocracy - a society characterized by a strong link between a person's skin color and their social class.

Despite the diversity of race in Brazil and how Afro-Brazilians comprise half of the country's population, Afro-Brazilians are living in poverty where only less than 2% of university students are Afro-Brazilians.

Because of this agreement, many people find Brazil as a "racial paradise" and "racial democracy" rainbow nation free of the harsh prejudices and society discrimination that exist in the US and South Africa. Although the ideas of the extend of racial equality exist in Brazil is unknown, many Brizilians reject the idea of racial discrimination and inequalities.

But just like the US, they also have their own official racial categories to facilitate collection of demographic information: * branco (white) * prêto (black) * pardo (brown) * amarelo (yellow) * indígena (indigenous)

Although there is a categorization just like the U.S, many Brazilians object these categories and instead, prefer tipos.

Another difference between the race construction in the US and Brazil is the fluid and flexible nature of race in Brazil. For example, if a dark skin person graduated and earn a lot of money, they can be seen as a somewhat lighter typo. Similarly, if a light skin person who are poor can be seem as a slightly darker tipo. This kind of social class doesn't exist in the US since social class doesn't change racial classification here in the US.

Since Brazilians perceive race based on the phenotypes of the physical feature appearance rather than as an extension of geographically based biological and genetic descent, individual members of a family can be seen as different tipos.

In Brazil, different features from different family members can be viewed as significant enough to assign different tipos. Even something as little as a suntan can assign someone with different tipos until the effects of the tanning or burning wore off.

The Brazilians rather than describing what is believed to be a person's biological or genetic ancestry, they describe slight but noticeable differences in physical appearance. This is called tipos.

For example: * Loura is a person who has a fair complexion, straight blonde hair, and blue or green eyes. * Sarara is a light-complexioned person with curled blondish or reddish hair, blue or green eyes, a wide nose, and thick lips. * Cabo verde is a dark skin person with brown eyes, straight black hair, narrow nose, and thin lips.

Sociologists and anthropologists have discovered more than 125 tipos in Brazil and small villages of only 500 people may feature 40 or more depending on the resident's description of one another. These label varies from region to region that reflects local cultural differences.

Although Brazil and the US have similar histories, both nations have different concept of race. In Brazil, race are viewed as the a united thing where everyone is the same and has the same racial labels that doesn't exist in the US.

Until recently, the US government, the media, and the pop culture have begun to officially acknowledge and embrace biracial and multiracial individuals.

Take Barack Obama for example, Obama is biracial who was birthed by a White mother and a Black father from Kenya. The media often refer to Obama as Black or African American instead of White. The one-drop rule can also be referred to as a hypodescent, a racial classification system that assigns a person with mixed racial heritage to the racial category that is considered least privileged

Race are constructed different around the World. In the US, race is categorize as discrete and mutually exclusive. For example, a person who had one “black” parent and one “white” parent was seen simply as “black.” This is called one-drop rule. The rule was created during the slavery era where it was used to ensure that the children born from sexual unions between slave-owner father and enslaved women would be born into slave status.

People often use their personal understanding of race to predict "who" a person is and "what" a person is like in terms of personality, behavior, and other qualities. Because of this assumption, people can be uncomfortable or defensive when they mistake someone's background or cannot determine "what" someone is.

The expansion of the definition of "whiteness" in the US took off after World War II.

After WWII, the US government offered a series of benefits for the military veterans includes passing an act that accommodates houses that are on the edge of the nation's major cities for the returning soldiers. Although the act doesn't specify race, many African American veterans were denied benefits because bank refused to provide loans for people to move into a predominately White neighborhood. Instead, banks allowed immigrants veterans who are from Eastern Europe to move into those neighborhood.

As we can see, after WWII, the "whiteness" consist of people who are pale rather. This draws many discrimination against people who doesn't have pale skin.

An example of racial formation can be seen by the idea of "whiteness" in the US. The concept of "whiteness" in the U.S expanded to include various immigrant groups that were once targeted of racist beliefs and discrimination.

In the mid 1800s, Irish Catholic immigrants faced many discrimination by the American society and the anti-Irish politician and journalist. The Irish at the time were depicted as being overweight, rude, and uncivilized. During the same time, the Italians and the Jewish weren't perceived well as well. But nowadays, Jewish, Italian, and Irish people are now considered as "white"

Race is most accurately thought of as a socio-historical concepts. Racial labels are the ultimate that reflects the society's social attitudes and cultural beliefs regarding notions of group differences. Because racial categories are culturally defined, they can vary from one society to another. This is called a racial formation.

Although race isn't a valid scientific concept doesn't mean that there is no such thing as race. Race is real but it is a concept based on the arbitrary social and cultural definitions rather than biology or science.

An example trait commonly mistaken as defining race is the epicanthic eyes fold that are often associated with people from China and Japan when in actuality, it is also common in people from Central Asia, parts of Eastern Europe, some Indian American groups, and some Khoi San of southern Africa.

Physical anthropologists have also found that there are no specific genetic traits that are exclusive to a "racial" group.

Each traits is inherited independently, not "bundled together" with other traits and inherited as a package. There is no correlation between skin color and other characteristics such as blood type and lactose intolerance. This is called nonconcordant.

Many people in the US believes that biologically distinct human races exist and are easy to identify. They claim that they are able to tell who is "White" and who is "Black".

The US was populated historically by immigrants from small number of world regions where they don't reflect the full spectrum of human physical variations.

Early settlers in the North American colonies are all came from Nothern Europe (Britain, France, Germany, and Ireland), where their skin tends to be the lightest skin in the world. Later on, slaves are brought to the US from the western coast of Central Africa, where their skin color tends to be the darkest in the world.

The whole human skin color is not an accurate representations of the range of human skin color; Instead, we are looking at the opposite ends of a spectrum. With the recent wave of immigrants that have settled in the US, it brought more wider range of skin colors that shapes the classification of skin color into a few simple categories.

If sunlight is less intense, it wouldn't penetrates into the skin to produce Vitamin D. In that case, people will be relying on the diet that they consume to receive the Vitamin.

Vitamin D are basically the essential for the health of bones and immune system. In areas where the ultraviolet radiations such as sun lights are strong, there is no problem producing enough Vitamin D.

But there are some exceptions to this general rule. For example, two countries who are close to each other where one country consist of lightskin people while the other consist dark skin people. These are due to the Vitamin D that are being consumed by one part of the country.

As phyical anthropologists John Relethford and C. Loring Brace have putted, skin color changes depending on the geographic space. For example, Swedish people are white and Nigeria people are Black but if you were to walk from Nigeria to Sweden, you will see the color of the people starting to get lighter.

Physical anthropologist use the term "cline" to differentiate the traits that occur in populations across a geographical area. In a cline, a trait may be more common in one geographical area than another, but the variation is gradual and continuous with no sharp breaks

As we saw from history, human race was being divided and categorize rather than being studied through scientifically.

There are two major types of "race classifiers" that we've discovered from human trying to classify race: * Lumpers: Classifed race through a large geographic traits and produce a small number of broad and general racial categories such as Linnaeus's idea and the three-race theories. * Splitters: Classify race into a specific and more localized regional race, as we can see from the three European race.

During the 1920s and 1930s, scholars claims that Europeans have more than one "white" or "Caucasian" race: * Nordic: Consist of people from the Northern Europe (the British Isles) to Northern Germany * Alpine: Consist of people from Central Europe such as French, Swiss, Northern Italians, and Southern Germany. * Mediterranean: Consist of people from southern Europe which includes Portuguese, Spanish, Southern Italians, Sicilians, Greeks, and Albanians.

By the early 20th century, many social philosophers and scholars have moved on to the idea of three human races: * Caucasoid * Negroid * Mongoloid

However, the three-race theory drew some backlashes due to not every in the world are a part of this three races system. Because there are many different human traits, experts began to argue in favor of larger number of human races.

In 1795, German physician and anthropologist Johann Blumenbach suggested that there were five races: * Caucasian (white) * Mongolian (yellow or East Asian) * Ethiopian (black or African) * American (red or American Indian) * Malayan (brown or Pacific Islander)

He listed the race in the exact order since he believed that Caucasian are the origin race of humankind.

In the early days of racial classification system, it was made by a Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus, who argued that there are four human races: * Americanus (Native American) * Europaeus (European) * Asiaticus (East Asian) * Africanus (African)

These categories follows the common racial labels that are still being used in the US such as taking a census and doing demographic purpose work.

The reification has a long history where philosophers and scholars tries to identify and classify the various human races as someone who shared certain physical and biological features. But of course, that led to many problems such as separating each race and classifying each race into categories.

The biggest reason why many people continue to believe in the existence of human race is because of the reified in literature, media, and culture for hundreds of years.

Reification refers to the process in which an inaccurate concept or idea is so heavily promoted and circulated among people that it begins to take on a life of its own.

The studies of physical and cultural variations from a scientific and anthropological perspective have allowed human to further improve the understanding of the true complexity of human diversity.

Race is something that promotes an illusion that racial categories are natural, objective, and evident divisions. This means that race isn't really real despite its color differences among people.

I am still a bit confused as to have change in N/change in T is the same as B-D. How do the proportions of these rates convert to this number?

Why do ecologists choose to calculate survival rates rather than death rates?

This is increasing right to left and bottom to top of the ptable. (opposite of e- negativity)

Nuclear Model

Matter cannot be created or destroyed

There might be a secret third cause.

Learned this in Psych class!

makes sense.

History is the forecast for the future.

Make sure you're not writing about correlations!

A nice line! Powerful writing.

The thesis statement should be interesting. It should be able to get the reader to be curious and continue to read.

know who you're writing to.

So true!

This makes sense!

Our judgement is based off of the criteria we've provided

criteria needs to have a reason

It suprised me that burning wood produces sulfuric acid or nitric acid which can caused acid rain. I had the idea that burning wood was not harmful for the enviremnet. While doing chores like cooking or heating up water, using gas is better for the enviroment than burining wood?

I didn't know this until last year, but almost all coal burning and natural gas burning in only used to create steam from liquid water in order to drive turbines. I always thought coal burning produced energy directly.

It is good that the Clean Air Act has been revised so many times, but it is also a testament to how little we know, even when we think we've identified the problem.