Since the extinction of C. jimenezii is of primary concern, the authors use resources from other works to help solidify this concept. It is clear that the conservation of this species is vital to this study.

Statistically the DR populations of the palms were more interbred than the ones that were in Haiti

Higher proportions of homozygotes have been found to be a result of a random occurrence in the process.

The studies done to date suggest that any given type of opsin is involved in only one phototransduction pathway.

This means that if the r-opsin present in E. scolopes is able to initiate both rhabdomeric and ciliary cascades, this would be the first instance of an opsin functioning in more than one pathway.

In addition to the presence of genes involved in ciliary phototransduction, both rhabdomeric and ciliary opsin are present in diverse invertebrates.

Consequently, it is possible that c-opsin could be present in E. scolopes, even though it was not detected.

The molecular and immunochemistry data provide strong evidence that rhabdomeric phototransduction is present in the light organ. However, the electroretinogram data suggest that both rhabdomeric and ciliary pathways are present, even though no ciliary opsin was found.

Arrestin and rhodopsin were found only in tissues responsible for modulation of light, i.e., the eye and light organ. Rhodopsin kinase was found in these tissues and at low levels in other tissues.

The authors tested the light organ tissues from animals without Vibrio (hatchlings) and from those with Vibrio (juveniles) to determine if the Vibrio are necessary to trigger the phototransduction cascades.

The authors found phototransduction proteins in the hatchlings, suggesting that the presence of Vibrio is not necessary for phototransduction to occur.

The rhabdomeric form of opsin (r-opsin) is involved in the visual systems of invertebrates. When r-opsin is excited (a stimulus is applied), the expected response in an electroretinogram is depolarization.

Only r-opsin was found in the light organ of E. scolopes. Because of this, the authors were surprised when they excited tissue in the light organ and it hyperpolarized. Hyperpolarization is usually associated with c-opsin, the form of opsin found in vertebrates.

Ciliary photoreception is generally associated with vision in vertebrates and is characterized by different phototransduction proteins than those involved in rhabdomeric phototransduction.

This finding suggests that the light organs have several pathways that may allow for sensing light.

Five key proteins that are required for the perception of light in the eyes of Euprymna were also found in the light organ. This suggests that the light organ also contains the biochemical pathways necessary to sense light.

Rhabdomeric photoreception is generally associated with vision in insects and molluscs and is characterized by specific phototransduction proteins. The authors identified the proteins they expected to find in E. scolopes.

If proteins associated with the visual transduction cascade were found in both Euprymna (host) and Vibrio (symbiont), the results would be very challenging to interpret. Because of this, the authors made sure the sequences were only from Euprymna.

This paragraph is the authors' summary of the results and conclusions of the paper.

Among individual species, there is much variation in range shift response to climate change. Therefore, the average range shift rates do not provide enough information to predict how an individual species will react to climate change.

On average, 22% to 25% of the species in each taxonomic group moved in a direction opposite to that expected based on the temperature change.

The observed elevation shifts are mostly smaller than the expected shifts. Elevation responses appear to lag behind climate change.

The authors express surprise at this result, and discuss possible reasons for it in the rest of the paragraph.

The observed latitudinal shifts match the expected shifts. The authors conclude that the average latitude responses are sufficient to track climate change.

Observed latitudinal range shifts had a positive, significant correlation with expected range shifts. The correlation of elevational range shifts was also positive, though less significant.

With these results, the authors demonstrated the direct statistical link between range shifts and levels of climate warming that was not demonstrated by previous studies.

Taxonomic groups in locations with larger temperature increases made larger range shifts.

The observed rates of range shift are significantly higher than those reported in Reference 14.

This analysis is an important update using the results of studies that were not yet available when the previous meta-analysis was done.

For each group in Table S1, the authors calculated a rate of range shift by dividing the observed range shift by the duration.

They found statistically significant rates of range shift both in latitude (median 16.9 kilometers poleward per decade) and elevation (median 11.0 meters uphill per decade).

For each group in Table S1, the authors calculated a rate of range shift by dividing the observed range shift by the duration.

The stationary partition (a) yielded the results of 96%-100% bootstrap proportions whereas the nonstationary partition (b) gave results of 100% bootstrap proportions throughout.

There are two restrictions to HRM analysis; it only refers to the available genotype collections and can only detect monotypic Symbiodinium populations.

HRM analysis was shown to be just as effective in detecting the genetic make-up of Symbodium strains as DGGE analysis. Some examples include less time to run the procedure, cross-contamination prevention, and inexpensive runs.

The mixed strains had a different melting point than that of the pure strains.

Keep in mind that even a single base change in the DNA sequence can cause differences in the High-Resolution Melting curve. In this experiment, forms of the same Symbiodinium clade, A3 and A4, have 50 different base pair changes whereas the clade, D1a and D1 have a smaller base pair (bp) difference of 2 bp.

HRM analysis began after the PCR procedure. The amplicon DNA was gradually heated from 78°C to 90°C. As the temperature increased, the melting point temperature of the amplicon was reached. The sample DNA denatured and the double stranded DNA separated. As a result, the fluorescence faded away.

Within the DNA sequence, the region of interest was first amplified (known as an amplicon) using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) method. During PCR, a special saturation dye called, EVAGreen, was added to the reaction. This allowed the amplicon product to fluoresce in the presence of double stranded DNA. Moreover, as the amplicon concentration increased in the reaction tube, the more light was emitted.

By using the HRM technique, the genetic make-up (genotype) of twenty Symbiodinium cultures were identified in less than 2 hours with a confidence percentage of greater than 90%. A >90% confidence interval means that more than 90% of the population distribution is contained in the confidence interval. In other words, there is only a 10% chance that the cultures were incorrectly genotyped.

Based on the movement of the electric fish around the "ping-pong ball apparatus" created by the authors, electric fish preserve the positions of their electric field generator and receptors and thus reduce changes to their sensory stimulation by maintaining a rigid body posture and control of their spine while swimming. These important physiological characteristics of electric fish are supported by their precise tail-first cartwheels while interacting with the "ping-pong apparatus".

This sentence highlights another example where the products of this research can be used in future experiments. In this example, the authors are stating it can be used in future neurological oriented studies of the midbrain and cerebellum; areas of the brain that are primarily oriented with executive functions.

The author describes here that with the data he has discovered and portrayed in the graph above the understanding of how neural computations and descending input for these fish occur will become clearer to understand and even reproduced if there is a need to help validate the findings of his experiment. Also the visual components of his findings allow the readers, both from the science community and from the general population, to more conceptually understand the travel of the high-frequency electrolocation travels.

In this statement, the authors concluded that the quantitative models and methods they employed throughout their experiment will attract interest to the neural components of electrolocation by providing visual representations of their results, which ultimately make these complex concepts and relationships between different sets of data easier to understand. In other words, simply just sharing data and results without any visuals using with complicated scientific jargon is ineffective in conveying the author's messages.

Data from the videos and the scans (which produced dipolar distortions) provided results showing how certain kinetic movement patterns exhibited by the fish are use to maneuver in their environment.

Overall, multiple features of an EOD map contribute to one physical characteristic of an electric fish, rather than each feature affecting one specific characteristic exclusively.

When comparing this study to results that might be found in the wild, a few things must be taken into consideration. First, the plants used in the study were asexual. This means that evolving traits were the same traits in every population, and the variation developed by evolution would be directly passed on to offspring. The second consideration is that the while the changes to genes were intentional, there's a chance that some of the changes could have been due to unintentional maternal or epigenetic effects. And lastly, the conclusions were made assuming that all genes were carried through the dispersal and none were left behind. This point is important because if genes that favored dispersal were the only genes being carried by dispersing populations, the response of the population would be more due to a genetic drift or narrowing of potential traits than to evolution.

The correlation between between height and average dispersal distance is significant. It is very likely that the relationship between height and the dispersal is not caused by random chance. The correlation between landscape patchiness and dispersal distance is significant and It is difficult to dispute the influence of patchiness on the distance a seed is dispersed.

Evolving populations showed less variation in velocity in replicate trials than did non-evolving populations. This means that the amount of spreading from evolving populations was fairly consistent in replicate trials, and population numbers increased at approximately the same rate, making expansion more predictable. Likewise, non-evolving populations did not have consistent spreading rates and varied between replicates in population increases. This made them less predictable for estimating expansion.

Velocity of spreading kept increasing regardless of distance in evolving populations in variable environments, even as the distance doubled and tripled. Non-evolving populations, however, slowed in population growth.

Populations which evolved spread slightly faster than populations which did not evolve in continuous landscapes. However, the effect of evolution was much stronger when the landscape had large gaps between soil. This indicates that evolution is very important to promoting biological invasions in fragmented landscapes.

Ticklishness is mood dependent: It is increased by a playful state and suppressed by an anxious state.

This result is surprising, because the somatosensory cortex has previously been shown to a have a role in detecting touch, but not in incorporating the emotional value of that touch.

USVs are triggered by stimulation of neurons in the deep layers of the somatosensory cortex, but not by stimulation of neurons in the surface layers of the somatosensory cortex.

When rats were anxious, tickling no longer caused an increase in USV production or the neuron firing rate.

The data suggest a possible connection between hand chasing and tickling as both response indices are similar.

Most of the neurons showed an increased rate of firing during tickling, gentle touch, and hand-chasing. However, there were some neurons that had a decreased rate of firing during these behaviors.

The rate of firing during breaks was greater than it was during pretickling, but lower than during tickling.

The rate of neural activity showed a pattern similar to the rate of USV production: Activity increased during tickling and remained elevated (relative to pretickling) during breaks.

Rats produced more USVs during the breaks between tickling than they did in the time before being tickled.

The data suggest that the decrease in floral density seen in alpine regions leads to the favoring of short-tongued bumble bees over long-tongued bumble bees across a wide range of plant communities.

Bumble bee communities in the Pennsylvania Mountain and in the Front Range have increased in species diversity and short tongued bees. These short tongue bees come from subalpine climates and could be replacing the long tongue bees, explaining their 24.1% decrease in the community.

According to optimal foraging theory, organisms will attempt to find the most efficient food source with respect to time and energy used to obtain it. As food becomes more scarce, the organism will increase the range of food sources it will forage. Bumble bees will select to feed from the flower who’s corolla length is closest to the length of their tongue. However, in desperate times, they will feed on shallower flowers, competing with the flower’s original bees for resources.

The variation in the size of the bumble bees only accounts for less than 20% of variation in bee tongue length, and is therefore not a valid explanation for changes in tongue length over time. There is some correlation between decrease in bee size in some populations and their tongue length, however this does not contribute to the reduction in tongue length observed over time.

An increased number of species in an environment decreases estimated social cost.

The values are averaged between BioCon and BigBIO experiments, so this suggests that both of these experiments lead to the conclusion of a lower social cost being associated with increased species richness.

Marginal value changes in BigBio and BioCON with increasing species richness.

For both instances, the amount of marginal value added per species decreases as species richness increases.

This is likely due to competition between species. As the species have to compete with each other, they are not able to contribute as much to the ecosystem.

Though the results show that carbon accumulation decreases at higher levels, at no point did carbon accumulation drop below what was accumulated in the control fields and this was thanks to the plant diversity.

Marginal carbon storage changes in plants, soil, and entire ecosystems as species richness increases.

For plants, soil, and ecosystems, the amount of carbon storage added per species decreases as species richness increases.

Carbon uptake increases significantly less per species at high levels of species richness than it does at low levels of species richness.

It also shows that cumulative marginal carbon uptake rate declines over time.

The results state that the carbon intake decreased over a 50-year period as suggested in Figure 2. The annual marginal carbon uptake was higher earlier in the 50-year stimulation and declined as time went on. These results conclude that the highest amount of carbon accumulation occurs in more primitive environments.

The results show that the largest marginal values, of carbon accumulation, occurred at lower levels of plant diversity and marginal values decrease at higher levels of species richness.

This occurred because of increased competition between plant species as species richness increased. This indicates that lower levels of plant diversity are the best situation for accumulating the most carbon, in plants and the soil, in an environment.

The results of the experiment show that an increase in plant diversity, in the American grassland fields, increased the amount of carbon accumulated in the plants and soil as shown in Figure 1. By increasing the amount of different plant species, in an environment, this increased the total amount of plant growth and also increased the amount of carbon stored in the soil.

Each additional degree of species richness is worth less than the previous degree of richness in terms of economic value. Therefore, the economic value does not increase in direct proportion with the species richness, although they are correlated.

Transcript levels are the rate that transcription is occurring, this can be important to determine what is affecting the starving females within the 4 key genes that were tested.

Since FOXO is a protein that regulates gene expression and is not nutritionally regulated. When the mosquitoes are given water with no sucrose the FOXO stops the role of the JH biosynthesis. This happens because the FOXO is not being transcriptionally regulated when the mosquito is being deprived of nutrients.

This statement explains why fish most likely cannot swim faster. Their muscular systems do not evolve because swimming any faster than the current rate would result in damage to their fins.

The goal of this study was to determine whether earlier studies were correct in their determination of maximum swimming speeds in sailfish as well as comparing sailfish speeds to other large marine predators. Here the author explains that compared to the other predators, the speed performance in sailfish based on size was the lowest. This is supported with Figure 2D

Their estimated swimming speeds are slightly higher than what is observed during predator-prey interactions because taking the fish out of the water and measuring its muscle would have not been limited by the real-life environment the fish normally swim in when chasing their prey, especially as they swim back and forth. So, their estimates can only give the theoretical maximum speed the fish can swim at without cavitation occurring, even if the fish don't actually swim at that speed.

Full curves in the graph represent the estimated maximum swimming speed which is limited by cavitation occuring in a shallow depth. It is important to mention "at shallow depth" because that would imply the fish are near the surface in warmer water, which would allow them to reach higher speeds before cavitation occurs than if they were in colder water.

From graph A it can be seen that the sailfish had the highest maximum swimming speed. Next was the Barracuda, then the Little tunny. The Dorado had the lowest maximum swimming speed.

Using certain statistical tests, the authors were able to find the differences they could properly analyze between the maximum swimming speed of the sailfish and the other 3 marine species. From here, they found that sailfish could reach higher swimming speeds than the other fish (shown in graph A). However, (in graph C) the maximum swimming speeds they OBSERVED in the barracudas, little tunny, and dorados were closer to the corresponding swimming speed they PREDICTED than for the sailfish (residuals = observed - predicted).

The hypothesis that DEET repellency is due to its non-polar molecular structure is rejected as studies of the insect sensilla show that DEET does not have any long term effect on the membrane or disrupt the odor detection.

What was hypothesized to be a player in the mechanism of Wolbachia colonization of the germ line cells ended up being a dead end. The processes of hydrating the cell were not related to concentration of Wolbachia.

In order to test taste perception as a mechanism, sweet tastants were used as well. What was found was that although these tastants did impact ovary size similarly to sugar, there was no significant difference with Wolbachia concentration.

Referencing the control, there was significant difference when comparing this group to the substance-enriched environments when observing ovary size. For yeast-fed cells, the ovary size would size would increase while sucrose-fed cells would decrease in ovary size.

Comparing yeast-enriched to sucrose-enriched, there was a significant difference in oocyte size, but not any significance when comparing either to the control. Therefore, oocyte size was not necessarily responsive either to control or substance-enriched regions.

Although the presence of sucrose was not significantly increasing the concentration of bacteria compared to the control cells, it definitely was significantly higher than that of the yeast-fed cells.

The data provided by Rokas showed that there needed to be a high number of genes to obtain good and confident results on a phylogenic tree. The reason why this was inferred was because nonstationary genes were used. In this paper it was proven that not many genes need to be used since stationary genes provide more accurate results with fewer genes, proving that there are good indicators to obtain phylogenetic trees

It was concluded that when the randomly sampled orthologous nucleotides are bootstrapped utilizing the same process as the contiguous gene sequences the amount of variances probable increased. However, the variances are not proportional to the contiguous gene bootstrap variances since there is no link to variation in gene size.

Both these graphs gave the results that stationary genes (triangles) produce higher bootstrap values with fewer genes compared to nonstationary genes. For Branch 2, only 7 stationary genes were needed to achieve a BP of 95% whereas 18 nonstationary were needed to achieve that same value. For Branch 3, 23 nonstationary genes were needed to achieve the same BP as 10 stationary genes did.

The data shown in Figure 4 represents the maximum likelihood that nonstationary genes (squares) are more susceptible to an “off” phylogenetic signal when compared to stationary genes (triangles).

The stationary Condon position demonstrated that it was slightly easier and faster to reach branch 5 of a phylogenetic tree with fewer genes.This exemplifies what this paper is trying to prove in regards of using fewer genes in order to build an accurate phylogenetic tree.

The comparison of topological incongruence went to exemplify how the tested "nonstationary" genes resulted in significantly lower ratios of identical or "fully compatible" trees in comparison to those in stationary conditions. The author does point out, however, this examination was altered form previous works, done by others, because of their belief of treating polytomies as soft instead of treating them all as hard.

Random sampling extracted from stationary partitions yielded above nonstationary samples, in addition to also resulting superiorly in comparison to the complete data set. Graph six clearly illustrates such observations through its "triangles" and "squares" symbolizing stationary and nonstationary, respectively.

Using the data acquired from Figure 5, the conclusion was made that stationary genes are again much more efficient at producing phylogenetic trees in comparison to nonstationary genes.

In figure 4a, the graph depicts how the third codon position stationary partition outperforms the non stationary partition as the number of genes increase and the bootstrap value rises. In figure 4b, the performance of the all-codon stationary partition was notably better. The amount of genes required to obtain higher than 95 percent of bootstrap value was 8 stationary genes to 21 nonstationary genes.

Using the results from Figure 1, the conclusion was made that nonstationary genes provided a less accurate phylogenetic tree compared to the stationary genes because it incorrectly provided a 100% bootstrap value to S. castelli (SCAS).

Orco mutants are unaffected by the presence of DEET, leading to the conclusion that olfactory receptors are not the sole reason for repellency against DEET.

When speaking with the author of this paper, he explained the importance of understanding the molecular pathways of DEET.

By having a greater understanding of this repellant, it will be possible to create a new insect repellent with better functionality and protection against disease carrying mosquitoes.

The results of this experiment testing the effect of DEET on bitter tasting gustatory receptors conclude that insects are repelled by the taste of DEET which is perceived to be bitter.

The authors found that the scaleless mutation is caused by the deletion of 14 amino acids in the EDF protein.

Their analysis indicates that the deletion is caused by the insertion of a 688-base-pair fragment which changes the way the gene is spliced (a process by which noncoding sequences are removed from mRNA before a protein is transcribed).

The authors found that the placode and the placode's signaling molecules are highly conserved—meaning they are found across many species. This study shows that the placode is responsible for the formation of many different structures such as feathers, scales, and hair.

Epidermal thickening, patterning of markers, and expression of dermal Bmp4, all characteristics of an anatomical placode, are necessary for reptiles to properly develop scales.

It was previously thought that reptilian scales are more similar to some types of avian scales (such as those covering the foot pad) than others. However, the current study suggests that this is not the case.

All avian scales develop from an anatomical placode similar to reptile scales.

The major finding of this paper is that reptile scales develop from an anatomical placode, similar to mammalian hair and avian feathers.

Scientists were previously unsure if this was the case because the reptilian anatomical placode is very short-lived during development (and thus hard to detect).

The results here support the idea that most skin appendages in reptiles, mammals, and birds are homologous because they share signaling pathways and arise from an anatomical placode.

One of the major challenges of tracing an organism's evolutionary history is an incomplete fossil record. Where there is no intermediate between two forms, scientists have to use the available evidence to make predictions about what this intermediate would have looked like.

The authors demonstrate that Shh, Ctnnb1, and Edar expression is similar in reptiles, mammals, and birds. They also conclude that the absence of an anatomical placode in scaleless lizards disrupts these pathways' ability to pattern the skin, which has also been observed in mice (a mammal) with similar mutations.

Another important part of science is recognizing sources of uncertainty in the data that lead to uncertainty in the results.

An important part of science is recognizing the limits of the conclusions that can be drawn from a given data set.

The authors' estimate of plastic waste entering the ocean is between 10 and 1000 times greater than the previously reported amount of waste floating in the ocean.

The authors predicted the amount of plastic waste that entered the ocean from coastal regions in 2010.

The authors calculated the mass of plastic waste that came from coastal regions in 2010.

Using population density data and waste generation rates, the authors estimated the total amount of solid waste generated in 2010 by people living in coastal countries.

Similar phenotypes are observed in other vertebrates (including mammals and birds) when the same pathway is interrupted. This suggests the pathway is conserved in reptiles, too.

The authors found that the patterns between patterning of the tracts that give rise to chicken feathers and those that give rise to reptile scales could be homologous.

In Nile crocodiles and bearded dragons, scales developed from a similar anatomical placode and patterned similarly both spatially and temporally.

The expression of Bmp4 in lizards strongly suggests a developmental evolutionary link among all reptiles, as well as birds and mammals.

The authors' results suggest that, because the anatomical placode is crucial to the development of skin appendages in mammals, birds, and reptiles, these appendages are homologous.

mtDNA CO1 is a gene found within the mitochondria, it is used to measure the genetic difference between organisms. A higher mean indicates a larger difference between two organisms, which is indicative of being a different species. (JP)

In general, this graph illustrates that as genetic distance between species increases (this is measured by Nei's D) then mtDNA divergence increases as well. Overall, compatibility between two different organisms will be less if they have high mtDNA divergence and a high Nei's D value. (JP)

Main subjects studied. Planktonic larva is significant in this study because larva shrimp would migrate to different regions of the Isthmus of Panama which may be a significant contributor to speciation events ~J.D.A. (+ JP)

Species so closely related showed two differ clutches. Isolation could've been geographical, though nothing that could completely cut them off from each other since they are similar. If anything, this could infer that they could've been selective in mating, or aggressive in behavior to even mate, thus preventing creation of offspring between them. ~J.D.A

Basically, the null is rejected because it contradicts the observed data. The null states that isolation occurred around at the same time, but the observed data shows divergence indicators such as metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition, all of which are not associated at a single mechanistic basis required for concurrent divergence. ~S.Z.

The physical location of the shrimp could effect the divergence associated with the gradual rise of isthmus. ~S.Z

The shrimp located closer to the sea floor had a slimmer chance of being pushed over the isthmus; therefore had a higher chance of isolation and divergence. ~S.Z.

The less compatible they are the more they have diverged. ~S.Z.

The physical barrier created by the Isthmus of Panama prevented the exchange of genes; therefore, allowing the organism to develop differently on wither side of the barrier or diverge. (SZ)

A contributor to the infection of nerve cells in fetuses caused by ZIKV is the expression of MSI1. The ZIKV infection can affect other areas of the body also, such as the retina and the testis, because MSI1 is highly expressed in these regions.

Cells that contain A148V mutations in MSI1 cannot support Zika virus replication. Musashi 1 wild types cells had an increase in Zika virus RNA levels and cell death while the cells containing the mutant Musashi 1 gene did not replicate the Zika virus. Thus, HEK293 cells, cells that normally lack Musashi 1 expression, are better able to replicate Zika virus infection when the Musashi 1 gene is expressed.

MSI1 and the genome of the ZIKV RNA directly interact to cause ZIKV to replicate. The replication can be seen in the replication assays conducted after MSI1 was introduced into cells.

Authors found that MSI1 binds to the 3’ untranslated region (UTR) of PE243 by analyzing RNA pulldowns. Results were confirmed by mutating the MSI1 sites in the 3’UTR. The weakened interactions demonstrate an interaction between MSI1 and PE243 ZIKV RNA mediated by 3’UTR, revealing where the protein binds to the RNA.

Phosphorylation at T205 inhibits complex formation.

Phosphorylation at T205 on tau limits Amyloid beta toxicity.

From Fig. 3 the authors conclude that p38y reduces PSD-95/tau/Fyn complex formation by affecting PSD-95/Fyn interactions.

p38y was shown to inhibit the formation of complexes, but the addition of PTZ lowers the protective function of p38y.

The interactions that are required to form the complexes are reduced in mice with an active form of p38y, demonstrating that p38y may prevent complex formation.

An immunoprecipitation for PSD-95 was ran. The proteins that were associated with PSD-95 complexes also precipitated due being in a complex with PSD-95. The results show that tau and Fyn were contributing more to the PSD-95 complexes when p38y was not present.

Results show that more PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes were in the brains of p38𝛾-/- vs. p38𝛾+/+. This shows that PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes are associated Amyloid-beta induced excitotoxicity

p38y only protects agianst PTZ-induce siezures only when tau is present. A difference between p38y being present and p38 being absent is only seen in mice that have tau.

APP23.p38y+/+ mice survived longer and had performed better in water maze than APP23.p38y-/- mice. Also shown in the results is that APP23.p38y+/+.tau-/- vs. APP23.p38y-/-tau-/- mice, are statistically the same, suggesting that the protective effect of p38 comes from phosphorylating tau.

The APP23 deficits improved when tau was not present in mice.

The lack of p38y kinase did not negatively affect the movement and motor function of the mice.

APP23 mice that had p38y and did not have p38y displayed similar traits, but the deficits in mice that did not possess p38y kinase were worse.

The only knockout mouse that displayed a change associated with PTZ-seizures was p38y. Because p38y was the only one that influenced the results, it is the focus of all the experiments.

The authors state, contrary to popular belief, that tau can play a protective role in limiting amyloid beta toxicity by interacting with p38γ. By phosphorylating specific sites tau can increase neuron survival and improve memory loss.

The data shows that the tau-/-.AAV tauWT and tau-/-.AAV tauT205A were the most susceptible to seizures and had the most severe seizures out of the four genotypes.

The results from previous experiments showed that neurons survived at higher rates when they had T205E and p38γ.

If p38y is completely inhibited, the complexes are stable.

The results of this experiment showed that p38γ helped to disrupt the PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes through phosphorylation of T205.

p38y was shown to prevent the interactions required to form the complexes associated.

The results of the previous experiment showed that APP23p38𝛾-/- mice had decreased T205 phosphorylation compared to the APP23p38𝛾+/+, which had T205 phosphorylation.

Demonstrates that the complexes will not form if unless tau is present.

The protective qualities of p38y are dependent on tau being present. If tau is not present, amyloid-beta toxicity effects the cells the same, even if p38y is present.

Mice that had higher levels of tau were more susceptible to seizures.

Overall, every deficit associated with APP23 was made worse when p38y was not present.

From the results, the researchers can infer that the presence of p38𝛾 kinase has a protective ability that lessens the amount of seizure trains that occur due to Aβ density bodies

From the results conducted in the experiment, specifically the Fig. 1 G-J, mice that did not possess p38y were more sensitive to seizures

The only knockout mouse that was shown to cause a change in PTZ-induced seizures was p38𝛾. p38𝛾 was also the only kinase that was shown to localize in postsynapses between neurons.

The significant decrease in the diversity of sgRNAs present at the end of the 14-day screen suggested that the GeCKO library was an effective way to identify survival genes.

Because of this, the authors concluded that they could use this method to identify genes essential for cell function.

When insulin signaling and JH synthesis are low this causes starvation in mosquitoes. When these mosquitoes were fed again the gland was "primed"; which means it responds faster to insulin levels. Now that the gland has been primed it responds faster that way insulin signaling and JH synthesis return to their normal rates. -Emma

This is a very important limitation to put the results and conclusions of the experiment in perspective. If the sampling may have been done differently the experiment may have revealed different or additional understandings of defense allocation and speciation.

• Carolina Jimenez-Pinilla

The difference in nutrient resources can affect the size of plants and their maturity which correlates with the previously cited growth-defense-trade-off because the study claims a correlation between the size of the leaf and defense strategies. This may be due to the unique collection of herbivorous insects that prey on the plants.

• Carolina Jimenez-Pinilla

Those two plants did not produce enough amounts of monoterpenes, a class of organic compounds, produced by plants, to be taken into account; and very small amounts of sesquiterpenes. The important part of this result was that it was not expected in the scientists' hypothesis and was unusual in comparison to the other members of the plant family.

• Carolina Jimenez-Pinilla

The results showed that there was a strong variation between insect species, habitat types, and abundance. As mentioned before, the terra firme lineage had different growth strategies than the white sand lineage and the terre firme plants were also found to have more herbivores feeding on them. This correlated since the terra firme seemed to provide more resources. The herbivores that were found also showed that they there was a variation across habitats.

-Angela Mujica

The reciprocal transplant experiment that was done with the different soil types showed that the terra firme lineage had greater height, greater leaf growth, and higher chlorophyll production in both soil types, while the white sand lineage did not. This worked to show that the growth strategies between each lineage was significantly different.

Figure four illustrates these results.

-Angela Mujica

The data that was collected from the herbivores and their abundance and variation between the plant species showed that most of the insects preferred terra firme plants instead of the white sand plants. It was also seen that, out of the species that were collected, the majority of them were chrysomelid beetles. Since the plants tested were in different locations, it was found that a small percentage of that correlated with the amount herbivore variation.

-Angela Mujica

The site that is phosphorylated by p38y was found to be important for reducing effects of AD. Demonstrates that the function of p38y is important, and the mere presence of p38y in the cell is not protective, it has to be functional.

The research found that the presence of p38y reduced the effects of AD in the mouse model.

The authors results supports their hypothesis, showing that there is a positive correlation between marine reserves and the abundance of reef sharks. - Emily

In the study, the majority of the BRUV deployed sharks developed no observable reef sharks . Because of this, environmental factors were not able to be considered.

This passage indicated that while the results obtained were conclusive in terms of the hypothesis promoted by the author, it was inconclusive in terms of the greater picture because there were many sources of error or outcomes that could not have been taken into account due to the settings of the reserves. The author mentioned that the results could have been bettered if accounted for prey-predator relationships in the reserves. This is because it could have provided more data as to why sharks were only being pinged the certain amount of times that they were as opposed to more or less times.<br> -Sindy

Tag size was an important consideration when it came to the assigning of a tag size and type to a specific shark. Smaller sharks were placed with smaller tags because the size and density of the tag could have affected the health of the overall infantile or smaller shark that it was paced in. This measure ensured that results and data for the experiment were viable and the the loves of the sharks were also accounted for and their safety ensured in that area of the study. -Sindy

This sentence highlights another example where the products of this research can be used in future experiments. In this example, the authors are stating it can be used in future neurological oriented studies of the midbrain and cerebellum; areas of the brain that are primarily oriented with executive functions.

-Kierra Hobdy

Data from the videos and the scans (which produced dipolar distortions,) provided results showing how certain kinetic movement patterns exhibited by the fish are use to maneuver in their environment.

-Kierra Hobdy

From Table 1, the following sex-determining proteins display InL, InL(clock), and the p-value. These factors display the final calculations. From what the author first concluded, the InL(clock) values show that there is in fact a constant rate with which the proteins evolve. It is tested by the likelihood ratio tests based off the models of evolution defined. -Melanie

Episodic selection can be defined as a form of selection that sporadically selects organisms with varying differences per generation, otherwise known as short-term fitness. In this sense, it can be concluded that SXL works alongside episodic selection rather than the molecular clock hypothesis in order to develop sex-specific functions within drosophilids. Learn about episodic selection here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2666517/ -Eri-Ray

In this study, the researchers found some questions as to whether the two species of C. jimenezii could be grouped with the same taxa.

Upon meeting with the author, it was stated that the molecular tools used, found a large amount of differentiation. This was not what the authors hoped and in turn was concluded that they were to remain in separate taxa.

RA

Genetic conservation of this population is important due to the few individuals left in Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Upon meeting with the author, the difficulty of finding the purebred species was discussed as were the methods.

RA

The authors concluded based off of the molecular data, that the two species of C. jimenezii could not be identified as two different taxa.

RA

Since the extinction of C. jimenezii is of primary concern, the authors grab resources from other works to help solidify this concept. It is clear that the conservation of this species is vital to this study.

RA

Funding for the sequencing research will require collaboration among researchers as well as creative approaches beyond traditional funding. GIGA is open to funding ideas and opportunities.

GIGA plans to continuously expand and improve and welcomes all members of the scientific community to contribute to their cause by helping understand the under-explored phyla. M.G.

GIGA will go beyond just invertebrate genome studies by opening pathways t new research in many other related fields.

The conclusion explains why they investigated what standards an invertebrate must reach to be tested for a successful genome sequencing. The researchers also add that geneticists could choose another option than searching an organism that meets their criteria. This option is sequencing organisms and modeling them for another organism. This would allow the geneticist to understand the other organism by having an idea of how the genome functions.

The researchers also state a challenge faced by the science community is understanding the data they collect from the genome sequence, apart from also gathering the sequences. They state the research they do will help advance knowledge about invertebrate genomes by providing the necessary tools to investigate the sequences. (NAJ)

Fishermen most likely overestimated the speeds of the fish they caught out of excitement and pride that they caught "such a fast fish" so they over-exaggerated how fast these fish really swam, contributing to the entrancing myth of the swimming speed of billfishes, what this paper addresses.

Broken curves in the graph represent limits on speed by the environment of the fish such as the strength of water current.

The shaded graph shows the contraction times at each location of a fish defined in actual length in meters rather than just as percentage of the fish's body length.

The only places they found significant differences in swimming speeds between fishes were between sailfish and little tunny and between sailfish and barracuda.

In little tunny, the muscles near the head contracted faster than those by the tail, which was different from the other fish that relied more on their tails to propel through water, and hence had lower contraction times near their tails than their heads.

Though sailfish swam the fastest, some of that speed is attributed to the fact that sailfish were the longest fish and larger size increases a fish speed. After considering this and correcting the swimming speeds by the fishes' sizes, it was found that sailfish had the lowest size-corrected speed and little tunny were actually the fastest considering their size.

The generation types (ex. F1, F2, etc.) and population size were taken into account for each shrimp pair. These factors were found to not support the phenomenon of divergence among shrimp pairs because no differences were found. ~J.D.A.

The less compatible they are the more they have diverged. ~S.Z.

The shrimp located closer to the sea floor had a slimmer chance of being pushed over the isthmus; therefore had a higher chance of isolation and divergence. ~S.Z.

The physical location of the shrimp could effect the divergence associated with the gradual rise of isthmus. ~S.Z

Basically, the null is rejected because it contradicts the observed data. The null states that isolation occurred around at the same time, but the observed data shows divergence indicators such as metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition, all of which are not associated at a single mechanistic basis required for concurrent divergence. ~S.Z.

The physical barrier created by the Isthmus of Panama prevented the exchange of genes; therefore, allowing the organism to develop differently on wither side of the barrier or diverge. (SZ)

Main subjects studied. Planktonic larva is significant in this study because larva shrimp would migrate to different regions of the Isthmus of Panama which may be a significant contributor to speciation events ~J.D.A. (+ JP)

In general, this graph illustrates that as genetic distance between species increases (this is measured by Nei's D) then mtDNA divergence increases as well. Overall, compatibility between two different organisms will be less if they have high mtDNA divergence and a high Nei's D value. (JP)

mtDNA CO1 is a gene found within the mitochondria, it is used to measure the genetic difference between organisms. A higher mean indicates a larger difference between two organisms, which is indicative of being a different species. (JP)

A big tuna (large body size) requires more energy which means it needs to feed from a higher amounts of prey or big preys. Consequently, the heat production is higher provoking a thermal excess. YS & WT

Lower energy intake during migrations - M.A.S

The purpose of these experiments were to test the effects of nutrients on terrestrial carbon loss that ultimately leads to a change in ecosystems.

Learning the effects and ideal ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus for ecosystems will lead to better policies to protect them.

In the experiment, it was found that the addition of nutrients encouraged terrestrial organic carbon loss.

This was tested by observing the litterbags of the experimental streams and comparing the data to the litterbags of the control stream.

Since a large amount of mass was lost in the stream with nutrient additions, this gives some evidence that too many nutrients off-balances organic carbon levels.

Fine POC export represents the movement of broken down carbon along the stream. Finer particles move faster and further down a stream as biological factors such as microbes and fungi decomposing the terrestrial organic carbon.

Detrivores have a different method of carbon depletion from streams. finer particulate organic carbon travels faster and further away from an area, deleting the area of carbon sources.

Invertebrates may leave the system if there are no food sources and alter the food chain.

Both nitrogen and phosphorus are contributing factors to changes in terrestrial carbon loss.

Within the ecosystem, different organisms require different ratios of nutrients to react and convert terrestrial carbon to carbon dioxide.

Aβ and an inert tracer, inulin, are removed from the brain about twice as efficiently in sleeping mice compared with awake mice.

This suggests that sleep may play a crucial role in the removal of harmful waste products and proteins which accumulate during metabolic processes.

Additionally, it suggests that the neurotoxicity observed in both Alzheimer's disease and chronic insomnia could be due in part to a failure in the sleep-driven expansion of the interstitial space.

This paragraph discusses how Ednrb is needed in order to further a melanocyte into melanoma, even if Kitl (another signaling pathway) is present. Therefore, this is the direct link to melanoma.

(NB)