Overexpression of RECS1 in CQ-stressed cells causes LMP and translocation of BAX to the lysosome, which induces cell death. BAX is a proapoptotic protein.

These findings validate the effectiveness of TH-IR ablation by 6-OHDA, as a decrease in time spent in the open arm of the EPM is associated with increased anxiety, and an increase in immobility time in the FST is associated with a depressed state. These results are not surprising as it is expected that a halt in the synthesis of dopamine (the feel-good transmitter) would increase anxiety and depression.

For rats, nocturnal mammals, increased photoperiod exposure is a stressor. Consequently, in both the EPM and FST, rats exhibit more depressive/anxious behaviors following long photoperiod exposure. In the EPM test, these rats spend less time in the open arm, and in the FST, they give up swimming and become almost immobile much sooner than the control group. For the short-day exposure group, the rats have more open arm activity, and in the FST persevere for longer, indicating reduced anxiety relative to the control group.

Panel D of Figure 4 shows that CSF levels of CRF and plasma levels of corticosterone significantly decrease following short photoperiod exposure. In panel B, short photoperiod exposure results in elevated coexpression of D2R and SST2/4R. These findings support the hypothesis that increased coexpression of D2R and SST2/4R has inhibitory effects on CRF neurons of the third ventricle.

The experimenters' measurements of mRNA expression are used to determine whether transmitter respecification is resulting from new transcription or preexisting transcription. If transmitter respecification is resulting from preexisting transcripts, TH and SST mRNA would already be present in the cytosol and only following exposure to a certain photoperiod condition, translational machinery would translate that existing mRNA. Thus, if the source is preexisting mRNA, then we should not observe TH and SST mRNA counts follow numbers of TH and SST neurons, and instead mRNA levels should be unchanged. The fact that the experimenters are observing that mRNA levels follow TH and SST neuron count demonstrates that the photoperiod exposure condition is inducing de novo transcription, rather than direct translation of preexisting transcripts.

Because one role of VMAT2 is to package dopamine from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles for their release from the neuron, VMAT2 serves as a marker for the presence of dopamine. In addition to VMAT2 expression, the expression of the dopamine transporter, DAT, was also observed. Altogether, these findings serve as evidence that the newly expressed TH-IR neurons, induced by short-day photoperiod exposure, are indeed synthesizing dopamine.

Panel D is consistent with the findings in Panel B and Panel C, which also demonstrate an increase in SST expression following increase day exposure.

In response to the photoperiod exposure condition, the circuit activity changes such that the neurons of the reserve pool are switching transmitters. The researchers believe that the TH-IR and SST-IR neurons are coming from this reserve pool of cells based on their finding that short-day exposure led to an increase in the recruitment of TH-IR neurons and diminishment of SST-IR neurons, while long-day exposure had the opposite effect.

The experimenters performed immunostaining for both dopamine and SST expression. Panel B depicts immunofluorescence of these transmitters in the PaVN. The first of the three images depicts the results from long day exposure; under this condition, there is an abundance of red representing an increase of SST expression and very little green indicating that there is a decrease in dopamine expression. Under short day exposure (third image), the opposite is true.

Finding that the TH-IR neuron counts are reversible upon application of opposite photoperiod treatment is further evidence that sensory stimuli can induce neuroplastic changes in the already mature brain.

BrdU labeling did not result in significant amounts of active poliferating cells; this is an initial indication that inverse SST and dopamine expression is not due to neurogenesis.

In order for the dopamine alterations to be induced by changes in light exposure duration, the dopaminergic neurons must be able to receive retinal input, as is the case with the dopaminergic neurons in the hypothalmic nuclei, innervated by the retino-hypothalmic projection. If the neurotransmitter respecificaiton is indeed due to the photoperiod treatment, dopamine production at an adjacent dopamine source, which does not receive retinal input via the SCN, should be unaffected.

Within the three photoperiods, 19L:5D, 5L:19D, and 12L:12D, the number of TH-IR neurons are similar. Because there is a consensus within each photoperiod, this is indicating that circadian fluctuations are not contributing to neurotransmitter respecificaiton.

In panel C, before KCl depolarization, there is observable fluorescent signals from FFN511, indicating dopamine uptake. Upon KCl depolarization, the fluorescence is diminished; this is indicative of dopamine release. The results of panel C are consistent with panel A and B in that during the long day light condition (19 hours light, 5 hours darkness), the fluorescence signal is the lowest, which means less dopamine being taken up.

Panel B: The fact that in all three photoperiod conditions, dopamine is colocalized with TH validates the use of TH as a marker of dopamine synthesis.

The researchers found that neurotransmitters are not actually fixed upon maturation, but are, in actuality, dynamic and can be affected by sensory stimuli such as longer or shorter photoperiods. Changes in transmitter expression result in behavioral changes as well. Thus, follow up research can explore what other sensory stimuli can change transmitter expression and also examine the corresponding behaviors that are regulated by those transmitters.

Shortening the length of daylight the rats are exposed to induced the formation of new dopaminergic neurons and thereby restored the rats' previous (normal) behaviors, i.e., the rats no longer displayed anxious and depressed behaviors.

Using drugs to prevent dopamine production resulted in anxious and depressed behaviors by the rats; these same behaviors were also observed following extended day length exposure.

When more of the neurotransmitter dopamine is produced, there is also an increase in the postsynaptic dopamine receptor. Likewise, when less dopamine is produced, it follows that there is a decreased expression of dopamine receptors. However, for somatostatin, this was not the case. Regardless of whether somatostatin production is increased or decreased, the somatostatin receptor expression is unchanged.

Altering the amount of time that a rat is exposed to light in a day leads to changes in the type of neurotransmitters being expressed by a set interneurons located in the hypothalamus. When the rat's daily light exposure is restricted to a shorter time frame, those interneurons favor dopamine expression. In contrast, longer daily periods of light exposure results in those same interneurons favoring somatostatin expression.

Of all seeds found on bird poops, 93% are of introduced plant species

The original hypothesis that shark behavior would be solely tied to their own temperature (most active when warm and resting when cool, or some other binary relationship) is revised in light of the more nuanced pattern that the researchers observed in the data.

Here, the authors present a new hypothesis that also includes the temperature and behavior of prey, pointing out that the sharks may be most active when the temperature gap between predator and prey is the largest due to their differences in thermal inertia. When the shark is cooling, the fish upon which it preys will have cooled down even more, reducing their ability to escape from the still relatively warm shark.

Thermal inertia is the ability of a body or object to maintain its temperature when ambient temperature changes. Larger objects have higher thermal inertia, so larger fish lose heat more slowly than smaller fish. Larger fish also have larger hearts, which can pump more blood.

The increased temperature range allowed the tuna to forage and obtain energy more efficiently.

Lower energy intake during migrations.

mtDNA CO1 is a gene found within the mitochondria, it is used to measure the genetic difference between organisms. A higher mean indicates a larger difference between two organisms, which is indicative of being a different species. (JP)

In general, this graph illustrates that as genetic distance between species increases (this is measured by Nei's D) then mtDNA divergence increases as well. Overall, compatibility between two different organisms will be less if they have high mtDNA divergence and a high Nei's D value. (JP)

Main subjects studied. Planktonic larva is significant in this study because larva shrimp would migrate to different regions of the Isthmus of Panama which may be a significant contributor to speciation events ~J.D.A. (+ JP)

Species so closely related showed two differ clutches. Isolation could've been geographical, though nothing that could completely cut them off from each other since they are similar. If anything, this could infer that they could've been selective in mating, or aggressive in behavior to even mate, thus preventing creation of offspring between them. ~J.D.A

Basically, the null is rejected because it contradicts the observed data. The null states that isolation occurred around at the same time, but the observed data shows divergence indicators such as metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition, all of which are not associated at a single mechanistic basis required for concurrent divergence. ~S.Z.

The physical location of the shrimp could effect the divergence associated with the gradual rise of isthmus. ~S.Z

The shrimp located closer to the sea floor had a slimmer chance of being pushed over the isthmus; therefore had a higher chance of isolation and divergence. ~S.Z.

The less compatible they are the more they have diverged. ~S.Z.

The physical barrier created by the Isthmus of Panama prevented the exchange of genes; therefore, allowing the organism to develop differently on wither side of the barrier or diverge. (SZ)

Phosphorylation at T205 inhibits complex formation.

Phosphorylation at T205 on tau limits Amyloid beta toxicity.

From Fig. 3 the authors conclude that p38y reduces PSD-95/tau/Fyn complex formation by affecting PSD-95/Fyn interactions.

p38y was shown to inhibit the formation of complexes, but the addition of PTZ lowers the protective function of p38y.

The interactions that are required to form the complexes are reduced in mice with an active form of p38y, demonstrating that p38y may prevent complex formation.

An immunoprecipitation for PSD-95 was ran. The proteins that were associated with PSD-95 complexes also precipitated due being in a complex with PSD-95. The results show that tau and Fyn were contributing more to the PSD-95 complexes when p38y was not present.

Results show that more PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes were in the brains of p38𝛾-/- vs. p38𝛾+/+. This shows that PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes are associated Amyloid-beta induced excitotoxicity

p38y only protects agianst PTZ-induce siezures only when tau is present. A difference between p38y being present and p38 being absent is only seen in mice that have tau.

APP23.p38y+/+ mice survived longer and had performed better in water maze than APP23.p38y-/- mice. Also shown in the results is that APP23.p38y+/+.tau-/- vs. APP23.p38y-/-tau-/- mice, are statistically the same, suggesting that the protective effect of p38 comes from phosphorylating tau.

The APP23 deficits improved when tau was not present in mice.

The lack of p38y kinase did not negatively affect the movement and motor function of the mice.

APP23 mice that had p38y and did not have p38y displayed similar traits, but the deficits in mice that did not possess p38y kinase were worse.

The only knockout mouse that displayed a change associated with PTZ-seizures was p38y. Because p38y was the only one that influenced the results, it is the focus of all the experiments.

The authors state, contrary to popular belief, that tau can play a protective role in limiting amyloid beta toxicity by interacting with p38γ. By phosphorylating specific sites tau can increase neuron survival and improve memory loss.

The data shows that the tau-/-.AAV tauWT and tau-/-.AAV tauT205A were the most susceptible to seizures and had the most severe seizures out of the four genotypes.

The results from previous experiments showed that neurons survived at higher rates when they had T205E and p38γ.

If p38y is completely inhibited, the complexes are stable.

The results of this experiment showed that p38γ helped to disrupt the PSD-95/tau/Fyn complexes through phosphorylation of T205.

p38y was shown to prevent the interactions required to form the complexes associated.

The results of the previous experiment showed that APP23p38𝛾-/- mice had decreased T205 phosphorylation compared to the APP23p38𝛾+/+, which had T205 phosphorylation.

Demonstrates that the complexes will not form if unless tau is present.

The protective qualities of p38y are dependent on tau being present. If tau is not present, amyloid-beta toxicity effects the cells the same, even if p38y is present.

Mice that had higher levels of tau were more susceptible to seizures.

Overall, every deficit associated with APP23 was made worse when p38y was not present.

From the results, the researchers can infer that the presence of p38𝛾 kinase has a protective ability that lessens the amount of seizure trains that occur due to Aβ density bodies

From the results conducted in the experiment, specifically the Fig. 1 G-J, mice that did not possess p38y were more sensitive to seizures

The only knockout mouse that was shown to cause a change in PTZ-induced seizures was p38𝛾. p38𝛾 was also the only kinase that was shown to localize in postsynapses between neurons.

The site that is phosphorylated by p38y was found to be important for reducing effects of AD. Demonstrates that the function of p38y is important, and the mere presence of p38y in the cell is not protective, it has to be functional.

The research found that the presence of p38y reduced the effects of AD in the mouse model.

From Table 1, the following sex-determining proteins display InL, InL(clock), and the p-value. These factors display the final calculations. From what the author first concluded, the InL(clock) values show that there is in fact a constant rate with which the proteins evolve. It is tested by the likelihood ratio tests based off the models of evolution defined. -Melanie

In this study, the researchers found some questions as to whether the two species of C. jimenezii could be grouped with the same taxa.

Upon meeting with the author, it was stated that the molecular tools used, found a large amount of differentiation. This was not what the authors hoped and in turn was concluded that they were to remain in separate taxa.

RA

Genetic conservation of this population is important due to the few individuals left in Haiti and the Dominican Republic.

Upon meeting with the author, the difficulty of finding the purebred species was discussed as were the methods.

RA

The authors concluded based off of the molecular data, that the two species of C. jimenezii could not be identified as two different taxa.

RA

Since the extinction of C. jimenezii is of primary concern, the authors grab resources from other works to help solidify this concept. It is clear that the conservation of this species is vital to this study.

RA

The conclusion explains why they investigated what standards an invertebrate must reach to be tested for a successful genome sequencing. The researchers also add that geneticists could choose another option than searching an organism that meets their criteria. This option is sequencing organisms and modeling them for another organism. This would allow the geneticist to understand the other organism by having an idea of how the genome functions.

The researchers also state a challenge faced by the science community is understanding the data they collect from the genome sequence, apart from also gathering the sequences. They state the research they do will help advance knowledge about invertebrate genomes by providing the necessary tools to investigate the sequences. (NAJ)

The generation types (ex. F1, F2, etc.) and population size were taken into account for each shrimp pair. These factors were found to not support the phenomenon of divergence among shrimp pairs because no differences were found. ~J.D.A.

The less compatible they are the more they have diverged. ~S.Z.

The shrimp located closer to the sea floor had a slimmer chance of being pushed over the isthmus; therefore had a higher chance of isolation and divergence. ~S.Z.

The physical location of the shrimp could effect the divergence associated with the gradual rise of isthmus. ~S.Z

Basically, the null is rejected because it contradicts the observed data. The null states that isolation occurred around at the same time, but the observed data shows divergence indicators such as metabolic enzymes, mtDNA, and mate recognition, all of which are not associated at a single mechanistic basis required for concurrent divergence. ~S.Z.

The physical barrier created by the Isthmus of Panama prevented the exchange of genes; therefore, allowing the organism to develop differently on wither side of the barrier or diverge. (SZ)

Main subjects studied. Planktonic larva is significant in this study because larva shrimp would migrate to different regions of the Isthmus of Panama which may be a significant contributor to speciation events ~J.D.A. (+ JP)

In general, this graph illustrates that as genetic distance between species increases (this is measured by Nei's D) then mtDNA divergence increases as well. Overall, compatibility between two different organisms will be less if they have high mtDNA divergence and a high Nei's D value. (JP)

mtDNA CO1 is a gene found within the mitochondria, it is used to measure the genetic difference between organisms. A higher mean indicates a larger difference between two organisms, which is indicative of being a different species. (JP)

A big tuna (large body size) requires more energy which means it needs to feed from a higher amounts of prey or big preys. Consequently, the heat production is higher provoking a thermal excess. YS & WT

Lower energy intake during migrations - M.A.S

The purpose of these experiments were to test the effects of nutrients on terrestrial carbon loss that ultimately leads to a change in ecosystems.

Learning the effects and ideal ratios of nitrogen to phosphorus for ecosystems will lead to better policies to protect them.

In the experiment, it was found that the addition of nutrients encouraged terrestrial organic carbon loss.

This was tested by observing the litterbags of the experimental streams and comparing the data to the litterbags of the control stream.

Since a large amount of mass was lost in the stream with nutrient additions, this gives some evidence that too many nutrients off-balances organic carbon levels.

Fine POC export represents the movement of broken down carbon along the stream. Finer particles move faster and further down a stream as biological factors such as microbes and fungi decomposing the terrestrial organic carbon.

Detrivores have a different method of carbon depletion from streams. finer particulate organic carbon travels faster and further away from an area, deleting the area of carbon sources.

Invertebrates may leave the system if there are no food sources and alter the food chain.

Both nitrogen and phosphorus are contributing factors to changes in terrestrial carbon loss.

Within the ecosystem, different organisms require different ratios of nutrients to react and convert terrestrial carbon to carbon dioxide.

This paragraph discusses how Ednrb is needed in order to further a melanocyte into melanoma, even if Kitl (another signaling pathway) is present. Therefore, this is the direct link to melanoma.

(NB)

By quantifying behavioral tolerance and intolerance of male-female transisthmian pairs, the researchers are able to compare interactions between closely related and distantly related species of snapping shrimp.

For example, while keeping figure 1 and table 2 in mind, more closely related species have higher compatibility compared to more distantly related species. Although this is not an indicator of having viable offspring, this shows that closely related species may share similar behaviors or may have similar niches. (JP)

Figure 1 is a visual representation of the relationship between differing species of snapping shrimps. This diagram was made using the mitochondria DNA sequences of the organisms and the PAUP program which calculates the level of relatedness between the sibling species of snapping shrimp.

Comparing Table 1 with Figure 1, it is found that species more closely related, such as P2 and C2, had a lower mtDNA mean value (6.6). Meanwhile, species that were more distantly related, such as P7' and C7, had a higher mtDNA mean value (19.7). (JP)

The inverted biomass pyramid is a good thing, but the fish spawning aggregations play an important role in whether or not this stays a good thing.

• D.N.B.

there is an active correlation between the populations of prey and predators, when the camouflage groupers aggregate in order to spawn. This increase in prey is what attracts the sharks. MSARS , WT & YS

The study showed that overall, there was a higher number of sharks observed that spent most of their time in the pass than there were that spent less of their time in the pass. YS & WT

The e coli strain engineered by the authors is behaving as they predicted.