Carbocycles underwent borylation at the most accessible bond which is the bond with least steric hindrance. The secondary C-H bond was found to undergo borylation.

Borylations of heterocycles occured at C-H bonds closer to the heteroatom.

Although several studies were carried out, the exact reason for the high reactivity of m-phen ligand is unclear. However, it can be concluded that the change in the methyl goup leads to the higher activity of the catalyst in borylation.

Borylation of primary C-H bond is irreversible leading to exclusivity in the product formed.

Borylation enabled placement of bromine atom at the strogest C-H bond instead of the weaker C-H bond that is typically observed.

Exclusive borylation occurred at the position beta to nitrogen.

Reaction preferentially occurred at the equatorial C-H over the axial C-H bond because reaction at the equatorial C-H bond is irreversible whereas the reaction at the axial C-H bond occurs but is reversible.

Less reactive carbocycles also underwent borylation because of the high reactivity of mphen.

Primary, secondary and tertiary alcohols were borylated at primary C-H bonds. However, this occurred after initial borylation of the hydroxyl group.

Alkyl arenes underwent borylation forming a single product or a mixture of products depending on the substitution pattern, ortho, meta or para.

No borylation takes place at the hindered geminal dimethyl groups.

Monoborylation took place at the n-butyl group and not at the more hindered t-butyl group.

Several functional groups that containied methyl groups underwent borylation at the primary C-H bonds. Once again, the specificity of the C-H bonds was proven.

When the borylation reaction was conducted with pentylcyclohexane with only one set of primary C-H bonds, only these bonds reacted. This shows the high specificity of the catalyst [Ir(OMe)(COD)]2 and 2-mphen for the primary C-H bonds.

When reactions were performed in solvents such as cyclohexane and cyclooctane, it was found that borylation occurred on the substrate rather than on cyclohexane or cyclooctane. Between cyclohexane and cyclooctane, cyclooctane was more inert towards borylation. Therefore, all reactions were conducted in cyclooctane as the solvent.

When the ligand is 2-methylphenanthroline, the catalyst is way more reactive than when coordinated by other ligands and shows selectivity for primary C-H bonds.

Borylations carried out in the presence of iridium catalysts are selective for primary C-H bonds in a wide range of substrates.

Both cells are strains of E. Coli, but they responded differently to circuit regulation. A healthy cell is described as "small and cylindrical". The MC4100Z1 E. Coli cells used in figure 3's experiments underwent abnormal elongation (filamentation) from their exposure to the killer protein, which may explain the escape of culture 3 from the circuit. Top10F' cells were immune to this response, and therefore did not escape regulation.

Macroscale experimentation not utilizing chemostat dilutions but still containing circuit regulation maintained their populations for approximately 2-3 days, but the microchemostat was able to maintain populations for upwards of 20 days.

By shrinking the volume of the bioreactor, the authors significantly reduced the mutation rate, allowing for observation of genetically similar populations for a longer time. This allowed for precise control of engineered bacterial populations over hundreds of hours without losing regulation control, which was not possible to achieve with larger reactors.

The killer protein took time to be diluted and degraded, so that it continued to filament and kill the cells. This "lag" in signaling is present in many biological systems and is why oscillations occur rather than population immediately reaching a steady-state.

As seen in cultures 1-3, the populations with the circuit showed a cyclic increase and decrease until they reached a concentration lower than that of unregulated circuits.

All three cultures eventually escaped the population control circuit, with Culture 3 exhibiting sustained oscillations for the longest duration, up to 186 hours.

Bacterial cultures lacking or with a disabled population-control circuit quickly reached and maintained a large population, whereas those with an active circuit showed unstable population dynamics before stabilizing at a lower level. As the population increased, more growth-limiting signals were released, causing a decline in population size and signal release. Subsequently, the population increased again, repeating the cyclic behavior until reaching an equilibrium between cell growth and death from the released signals.

As the dilution rate (how often cells are removed from the bioreactor) increases, the bacteria concentration decreases. Likewise, when the quantity of nutrients (bacto-tryptone) provided to the bacteria are reduced, their concentration also decreases.

Even after 6 months, the cooling cuff is still in contact with the nerve and demonstrate that it is compatible with the body's tissues and can gradually dissolve over time.

The experiments and simulations presented in this paper demonstrate that microfluidic evaporative cooling is an effective approach for reversibly and precisely cooling nervous tissue to suppress pain signals. This method's success suggests its potential for providing pain relief without the side effects associated with traditional pain medications.

The cooling cuff successfully blocked nerve signals in rat sciatic nerves, and this effect was reversible once the nerve tissue returned to normal temperature. This suggests that the device could potentially function in humans too, based on this early evidence on an animal model.

The device in this paper can selectively cool a precise area of nervous tissue without affecting the surrounding tissue, ensuring that only the targeted area receives the cooling effect. This targeted cooling allows for localized pain relief without impacting neighboring tissue, which contrasts with the broader effects of opioid medication.

When attempting to cool nervous tissue, the effect of blood circulation should be considered, as it can counteract the cooling process by bringing heat to the cooled area.

The rat sciatic nerve elastic modulus is 0.6 MPa, while the elastic modulus of the base material of the device, POC, is 2.8 MPa. This means that the device will deform and stretch even less than that of the present neural tissue in rats.

The elastic modulus of human neural tissue has been measured at 100 Pa to 10 kPa, meaning the device is vastly sufficient for human tissue as well.

Information about the human nerve tissue elastic modulus, as well as for other tissues, can be found at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4519935/

The nonadhesive coatings mentioned earlier slightly reduce bacteria adhesion and biofilm formation, but channels were still invaded within approximately two days.

The author's method of periodically closing off a section of the loop, cleaning it thoroughly, and reintroducing bacterial growth medium before resuming flow was effective for long-term experiments.

The researchers conducted an experiment using three rats where they studied the impact of the cooling cuff on the pain associated with the spared nerve injury (SNI). They observed that the threshold at which the animal feels pain in response to a mechanical force increased as the temperature of the SNI-treated nerve decreased. This increase indicates a notable reduction in pain sensation due to cooling, suggesting that cooling has a significant analgesic (pain-relieving) effect.

This aspect presents a significant knowledge gap for this research that remains elusive. As depicted in Figure 4, only one bacterial culture maintained a low concentration upon reactivation of the population-limiting circuit. The authors state that this behavior cannot simply be explained by mutation rate.

The authors envision clinical applications for addressing acute pain after surgery, particularly in cases where specific nerves causing pain are known and opioid therapy is necessary. This implantable device provides targeted cooling to nerves surrounding damaged tissues, thereby offering an alternative to addictive and risky pain medications. The neural activity is temporarily blocked by cooling, and can be reversed after the treatment. The device is biodegradable, eliminating the necessity for surgical removal post-healing.

The temperature drop caused a reduction in nerve bundle electrical activity and a notable delay in neural signal propagation.

Depending on what level a writer stipulates their usage, they may come to some drastically bad conclusions. One should watch out for these sorts of biases.

Compare with the results of accepting certain axioms within mathematics and how that changes/shifts one's framework of truth.

Only GST-Lst1 purified protein is able to bind with the Atg40 but not other subunits of COP11 coat proteins.

A conclusion summarized by the authors based on experiments that have been done to distinguish the bulk autophagy and selective autophagy that happened in various organelles, and only ER-phagy is required by Lst1 coat protein.

To draw a conclusion which exclusively functional in one particular experiment, the designs of various experiments are needed in order to rule out other possibilities.

Lst1 and atg40 mutants have higher UPR response before and after DTT treatments, indicates that defeated in ER-phagy proteins will also induce the UPR.

No additive effect was observed when double mutant of lst1atg40 is investigated. This finding drawn another summary which LST1 and ATG40 function in the same pathway.

A conclusion summarized by the authors based on experiments that have been done to distinguish the bulk autophagy and selective autophagy that happened in various organelles, and only ER-phagy is required by Lst1 coat protein.

To draw a conclusion which exclusively functional in one particular experiment, the designs of various experiments are needed in order to rule out other possibilities.

Lst1-Sec23 is a coat adaptor protein that carry the cargo molecules form ER to Golgi, which mainly to help the secretory proteins transportation. The author discovered new function of the Lst1/Sec23 in self-eating and protein recycling process (autophagy), in which the Lst1-Sec23 functions together with the autophagy receptor, Atg40, to localize the ER domains for autophagic degradation.

Lst1 and atg40 mutants have higher UPR response before and after DTT treatments, indicates that defeated in ER-phagy proteins will also induce the UPR.

In response to stress caused by starvation or misfolded aggregate-prone secretory proteins, Lst1 acted to promote an additional function—ER-phagy. Together with autophagy receptors on the ER, Lst1 targeted ER domains for degradation to avert protein aggregation, thus preserving cellular health.

This is confirming that the device's epithelial layer of cells was able to survive, create surfactants, become more structurally stable, and be selectively permeable much like those epithelial cells of the alveolar-capillary interfaces found in the human lung.

Transwell culture involves growing cells on a porous membrane to mimic the physiological environment of certain tissues and organs; the study found that static Transwell systems had fewer nanoparticles moving across the cell barrier, while the lung mimicking microdevice showed a larger number of nanoparticles crossing the barrier.

This is showing that the in vivo mouse model dosed with nanoparticles showed a higher number of nanoparticles moving across the alveolar-capillary interface, which is similar to the results obtained from the lung mimic device.

These results state that physiological breathing motions caused an increase in nanoparticle transport across the alveolar-capillary barrier, which was not due to physical disruption of cell-cell junctions. The mechanism behind this phenomenon may help us gain a better understanding of how these nanoparticles translocate across tissues and cause toxicity.

The findings indicated that although introducing simulated mechanical strain had no additional toxic effect for certain nanoparticles, others (specifically, silica nanoparticles and carboxylated quantum dots) demonstrated toxicity, especially at the early stages of exposure.

This is describing that the inflammatory response due to silica nanoparticles was significantly greater when strain simulating breathing was applied, meaning that the device can simulate the effects of nanoparticles much more accurately than any stagnant cell culture ever could.

Here the researchers are testing whether their microdevice can simulate the alveolar-capillary interface, by triggering a proper immune response to an infection. They observed that when they exposed the alveolar side to a bacterial pathogen (E. coli), neutrophils on the capillary side migrated across the membrane to render them ineffective. A similar immune response is observed in the human body, confirming that the microdevice emulates lung physiology properly.

The human lung goes through a lot of changes over time! Not only must it handle breathing in and out every minute of every day, but the lungs have to deal with all sorts of infectious pathogens. If scientists are to make human-like 3D cell cultures for drug testing, they must be able to replicate the lungs' day-to-day functions. This work is very special because it represents the culmination of years of research into making a proper artificial lung-on-a-chip. The researchers report that their device not only inhales and exhales like a normal lung, but can also fight infections with an immune response! This means that any drug testing performed on this device has a higher potential to mimic the human lung response than a standard 2D cell culture

Only GST-Lst1 purified protein is able to bind with the Atg40 but not other subunits of COP11 coat proteins.

The authors found that ethylene diffused rapidly to the bottom chamber through empty column while diffused more slowly through uncompacted soil. However, ethylene was not able to diffuse through compacted soil even after 20 days of experiment. This suggests that soil compaction indeed affects the diffusion of ethylene.

The authors' mathematical model predicted that ethylene diffusion was slower in compacted soil when compared to that in uncompacted soil, resulting in a higher concentration of ethylene around roots.

The authors observed increased intensity of GFP signals in roots grown in compacted soil. This suggests that soil compaction triggers ethylene response.

The authors found that ethylene treatment alone induced increased root width and flattened cap shape, further supporting that ethylene is a critical controller of root growth in response to soil compaction.

The authors observed induced radial growth and root cap shape changes in wild-type but not ein2 mutant grown in compacted soil when compared to plants grown in uncompacted soil. This suggests that ethylene but not mechanical impedance plays the primary role controlling root grwoth changes.

The authors found that wild-type plants had less root growth in compacted soil when compared to uncompacted soil. However, no difference was observed between uncompacted soil and compacted soil for plants defective in ethylene response. This indicates that ethylene is required to inhibit root growth in compacted soil.

The authors found that roots grown under high levels of ethylene or in compacted soil showed similar characteristics, reduced root length and increased root width, when compared to roots grown under low levels of ethylene or uncompacted soil.

The authors found that the green signal indicating hypoxia response is not enhaced in roots with gas barrier when compared to roots without gas barrier. This suggests that the enhanced ethylene response is not due to hypoxia.

The authors found enhanced ethylene-responsive green signals in roots with gas barrier when compared to roots without gas barrier. This result suggests that the inhibition of gas diffusion between roots and soil induces accumulation of ethylene and activation of ethylene response.

This is confirming that there is no leakage of albumin, a globular protein found in serum, between the alveolar lung side of the chip and the capillary side during the chip's physiological simulation of breathing.

Sec61 as ER translocon protein marker and FM4-64 as vacuolar membrane marker. From the Fig 1 A, the overlapping green and red signals in the vacuolar membrane were decreased in the mutants lst1 and atg40 compared to WT, sec24-3A iss1 mutant and iss1 mutant, which were quantified in Fig 1 B, indicated that the Lst1 and ATG40 are required for degradation of ER in the vacuole .

As opposed to normal RECS1, a high dose of non-functional RECS1 (D295Q) has no effect on cell viability/cell death, suggesting that the function of RECS1 as ion channel is linked to its role in cell death regulation

Asp295 is required as a pH sensor, because when cells with non-functional Asp295 are used, the probability of finding the channel in open state is significantly reduced at pH 7.

Lower amount of electricity is conducted at lower pH, suggesting that the ion channel function is regulated by pH.

The interaction of Arg158 with the Asp268-Asp295 maintains a closed state, leading to regulation of ion movements

Overexpression of RECS1 in CQ-stressed cells causes LMP and translocation of BAX to the lysosome, which induces cell death. BAX is a proapoptotic protein.

To help fight cognitive bias, one should actively think about potential failure modes of one's decisions and think about alternative conclusions which aren't part of the findings one might have hoped for. Watching out for these can dramatically help increase solution spaces and be on the watch out for innovative alternate or even better solutions.

This polemic identifies CS as the culprit. That seems empirically wrong. As stated, it's "not a prerequisite for most programming" even in theory, and in practice, there are mountains of GitHub programmers, at least, who don't have CS backgrounds. Non-CS folks probably account for most of the "frontend"/"full stack" development today. This has exacerbated the Tower of Babel, not improved it.

HCI is CS—and that's what we should focus on. There's a fair bit of emphasis on engineering due, too. To be able to look at a problem and ask, "What should it take?" and ocnversely, "What isn't required here (contra cultural imperatives)?"

The authors determined the optimal PDMS thickness that would allow a sufficient air gap between the membrane and the sensor coil. In this case, the membrane could easily deform and its deflection was measured when an external force was applied.

After the authors tested the ultralow pressure sensing ability of the sensor, they found that not only could the sensor detect ultralow pressures but that it could also detect pressures over 20 kPa. The means that sensor could also detect heavy objects as well as subtle sensations like wind blowing.

The authors determined that a frequency of 250 kHz produced the largest percent change (500%) in magneto-impedance, thereby yielding the highest sensitivity. This meant that a small force could be detected by the sensor with a high magnetic field sensitivity.

This result is valuable, because it proves the author's tactile sensor can detect pressure load smaller than the sensing threshold of a human. The tactile sensor is able to encode a digital-frequency signal of 0.7-Hz pulse waveform when a loading of 1.25 Pa (approximately 50 μN) was placed on the tactile sensor. This loading is much smaller than the sensing threshold value of humans, which is approximately 1 mN.

The authors conducted an experiment to optimize their tactile sensor. They found that a PDMS ring height of 1.3 mm allows the sensor to work in the most sensitive range.

It takes less force to activate stimuli for the sensor than it would for human skin. This means the tactile sensor is more sensitive than human skin, which makes it an efficient replacement for those who suffer from limb loss.

The polymer magnet with a magnetization of 0.3 emu and PDMS ring height of 1.3 mm yields a sensor that works at the most sensitive range. This means that this device has been optimized for further testing and application.

The authors prove the soft robot's robustness by highlighting its ability to remain functional after withstanding a significant weight. This achievement can be attributed to the prototype's deformable body.

The authors determined that the rapid locomotion and robustness of the soft robot are due to the unique structure and materials used to construct it along with the large deformation that the robot undergoes upon actuation.

The authors performed 25 tests to determine what combination of relative leg position and angle would offer the fastest running speeds of the soft robot. Given Fig. 3B, a position at 0.1 and angle of 0.4 was determined to result in the fastest speed.

Here, the authors designed an insect-scale soft ground robot based on piezoelectric actuation that achieved the fastest speed (20 body lengths per second) reported up to date.

Climate simulations even today are subject to a high degree of uncertainty in the range of ecological and geological impacts. While warming is already ongoing and certain to continue for some time, there are likely to be several indirect effects which are difficult to predict before they begin.

The estimate of greater than 2°C of warming by the end of the 21st century is consistent with current expectations.

At the time of this paper's publication, there was too much year-to-year variability in temperature measurements to be certain that greenhouse effect warming was already occurring. The model predicts that the overall trend of increased temperatures would be clearer within the decade.

The observed warming since then has risen much further above the noise, and it is now clear that the earth is getting hotter due to the influence of greenhouse gases.

Carbon dioxide has such a great warming potential that increasing its concentration in the atmosphere will result in higher temperatures even if solar output and volcanic eruptions contribute substantially to cooling.

A model that includes only carbon dioxide and volcanic aerosols as inputs produces predictions that agree well with observation. This indicates that these two factors are the primary drivers of the observed climate variation.

The ocean's ability to spread heat into deeper layers has a large impact on the greenhouse effect. By varying this mixing rate and observing how well the model agrees with real observations, the authors find an optimal value to use for further testing.

The authors' atmospheric model is able to produce estimates of temperature change due to the greenhouse effect, which appear to be reliable for a period of several years after a major perturbation.

If the ocean were not able to buffer sudden impacts of atmospheric changes on the climate, volcanic eruptions would cause intense global cooling in the short term.

While the overall warming of the observed period is consistent with predictions, the year-to-year variability cannot be explained by carbon dioxide concentration alone.

At the time of this paper's publication, many mistakenly believed that the earth's climate was cooling. This reconstruction of the global temperature record shows that, while the Northern Hemisphere cooled between 1940 and 1970, this trend did not persist at larger scales. Indeed, by 1981, this localized cooling had been almost entirely reversed.

This model predicts that the atmosphere will warm due to increasing carbon dioxide, but the change in surface temperature also depends strongly on the presence of other gases, suspended particles in air, and variations in solar light output. These factors must also be considered to ensure the accuracy of any predictions.

The predictions of global warming by this model are subject to uncertainty relating to the heat capacity of the ocean. However, even the lower estimate indicates substantial increases in surface temperature over the following decades.

The ocean can only diffuse heat to deeper levels at a finite rate. If the ocean is able to vertically mix at a faster rate, more of the heat in the atmosphere can be absorbed into water rather than contribute to the surface temperature. This reduces the contribution of greenhouse gas concentration to warming in the short term.

Using the best model from the earlier comparisons (Model 4), the authors find that the climate reaches equilibrium in response to doubling carbon dioxide in about six years. This is an indicator of the time it takes for changes in greenhouse gas concentrations to have their full effect on global climate.

Because the authors have developed a model which is simpler than other atmospheric simulations, its reliability must be verified. If it agrees with more complex models, this is a good sign that it captures the important factors.

The authors used a high-speed camera to characterize the duty cycles of the soft robot. They concluded that the soft robot achieves the fastest speed when it spends most of its time in the air (maximizing the aerial duty cycle).

The soft robot achieved its fastest speed of 8.7 cm/s when actuated at 200 Hz.

The author concluded from the experimental data that there is a direct relationship between driving frequency, body length, and speed. Shorter bodies and greater frequency yields faster speeds while longer bodies and lesser frequency yields slower speeds.

Here, the authors quantify the robustness of their device. The use of PVDF, PET, and silicon allows for the soft robot to maintain its shape. However, excess weight is shown to damage the structure of the device, resulting in decreased speed.

The authors continue to demonstrate the soft robot's agility by applying a realistic insect movement pattern.

The authors' found this information after their impedance and applied pressure experiment and ant experiment respectively. This showed the very high sensitivity of the sensor at an ultralow pressure range.

After the authors' water drop experiment, they found that the impedance increased with increasing volumes of water. Therefore, the device was able to "sense" the weight of the different volumes of water. They found that the device's detection limit was 0.3 Pa.

After the authors' ant experiment, they found that the sensor was able to detect the ant's movements across the sensor. This confirms the device's ability to detect changing tactile information.

Despite bearing six times its weight, the prototype is able to maintain locomotion control, demonstrating its agility.

The Montreal Protocol was established to heal the hole in the ozone layer by phasing out the release of ozone-depleting substances. This paper concludes that the hole in the Antarctic ozone layer is starting to heal as a result of the reduction in ozone-depleting substances.

This paper shows that in order to draw a conclusion about the healing of the Antarctic ozone hole, the following is required:

1. Gathering data on the amount of atmospheric ozone over time using balloons and satellites.

2. Since aerosols released by volcanic eruptions can deplete ozone, volcanic aerosols must be measured.

3. Ozone-depletion models which account for climate and chemistry must be used to interpret ozone-abundance data.

Since the ozone-depleting substances released by humans were not increasing, it was important to understand why the Antarctic ozone hole was so large in the year 2015.

The paper concludes that the unusually large hole was due to a volcanic eruption in Calbuco, Chile.

The sulfur-based aerosols released from volcanoes can also deplete the ozone layer, so they must be accounted for when tracking the hole over time.

If the effects of the volcanic eruptions in 2011 and 2015 are removed, the chemically induced Antarctic ozone hole shows signs of healing.

The model is accurately simulating the ozone trends, and it shows that the decline in ozone-depleting chemicals is driving the healing.

While October is the month when the Antarctic ozone hole was originally discovered, the smaller variations from non-chemical factors make it easier to observe healing in September.

The authors demonstrate that Dmrt1 expression relies on Kdm6b function in male gonad development, and that Kdm6b targets Dmrt1 to activate male gonad development at MPT.

The knock-down of Kdm6b caused female gonad development at MPT, which shows that Kdm6b is required for proper temperature-dependent male gonad development.

The specific abundance of Kdm6b expression in developing gonads at MPT, FPT-to-MPT temperatures, and hormone treatment show that KDM6B likely functions in temperature-dependent sex determination.

The authors only detected KDM6B in the developing cells in the gonads at MPT, so they conclude that KDM6B may function in sex development.

The authors want to know how Kdm6b expression changes based on temperature specifically in the gonads instead of all developing tissues.

It is important to note that the Kdm6b pathway is likely used by many reptiles to regulate temperature-dependent sex determination, but that the way each species has evolved to use it might be different.

KDM6B is required for Dmrt1 activation and specifically associates with the promoter of Dmrt1.

This shows that KDM6B orchestrates male sex development early in gonadal cells by directly removing H3K27me3 at the Dmrt1 promoter to activate Dmrt1 expression.

These findings validate the effectiveness of TH-IR ablation by 6-OHDA, as a decrease in time spent in the open arm of the EPM is associated with increased anxiety, and an increase in immobility time in the FST is associated with a depressed state. These results are not surprising as it is expected that a halt in the synthesis of dopamine (the feel-good transmitter) would increase anxiety and depression.

For rats, nocturnal mammals, increased photoperiod exposure is a stressor. Consequently, in both the EPM and FST, rats exhibit more depressive/anxious behaviors following long photoperiod exposure. In the EPM test, these rats spend less time in the open arm, and in the FST, they give up swimming and become almost immobile much sooner than the control group. For the short-day exposure group, the rats have more open arm activity, and in the FST persevere for longer, indicating reduced anxiety relative to the control group.

Panel D of Figure 4 shows that CSF levels of CRF and plasma levels of corticosterone significantly decrease following short photoperiod exposure. In panel B, short photoperiod exposure results in elevated coexpression of D2R and SST2/4R. These findings support the hypothesis that increased coexpression of D2R and SST2/4R has inhibitory effects on CRF neurons of the third ventricle.

The experimenters' measurements of mRNA expression are used to determine whether transmitter respecification is resulting from new transcription or preexisting transcription. If transmitter respecification is resulting from preexisting transcripts, TH and SST mRNA would already be present in the cytosol and only following exposure to a certain photoperiod condition, translational machinery would translate that existing mRNA. Thus, if the source is preexisting mRNA, then we should not observe TH and SST mRNA counts follow numbers of TH and SST neurons, and instead mRNA levels should be unchanged. The fact that the experimenters are observing that mRNA levels follow TH and SST neuron count demonstrates that the photoperiod exposure condition is inducing de novo transcription, rather than direct translation of preexisting transcripts.

Because one role of VMAT2 is to package dopamine from the cytosol into synaptic vesicles for their release from the neuron, VMAT2 serves as a marker for the presence of dopamine. In addition to VMAT2 expression, the expression of the dopamine transporter, DAT, was also observed. Altogether, these findings serve as evidence that the newly expressed TH-IR neurons, induced by short-day photoperiod exposure, are indeed synthesizing dopamine.

Panel D is consistent with the findings in Panel B and Panel C, which also demonstrate an increase in SST expression following increase day exposure.

In response to the photoperiod exposure condition, the circuit activity changes such that the neurons of the reserve pool are switching transmitters. The researchers believe that the TH-IR and SST-IR neurons are coming from this reserve pool of cells based on their finding that short-day exposure led to an increase in the recruitment of TH-IR neurons and diminishment of SST-IR neurons, while long-day exposure had the opposite effect.

The experimenters performed immunostaining for both dopamine and SST expression. Panel B depicts immunofluorescence of these transmitters in the PaVN. The first of the three images depicts the results from long day exposure; under this condition, there is an abundance of red representing an increase of SST expression and very little green indicating that there is a decrease in dopamine expression. Under short day exposure (third image), the opposite is true.

Finding that the TH-IR neuron counts are reversible upon application of opposite photoperiod treatment is further evidence that sensory stimuli can induce neuroplastic changes in the already mature brain.

BrdU labeling did not result in significant amounts of active poliferating cells; this is an initial indication that inverse SST and dopamine expression is not due to neurogenesis.

In order for the dopamine alterations to be induced by changes in light exposure duration, the dopaminergic neurons must be able to receive retinal input, as is the case with the dopaminergic neurons in the hypothalmic nuclei, innervated by the retino-hypothalmic projection. If the neurotransmitter respecificaiton is indeed due to the photoperiod treatment, dopamine production at an adjacent dopamine source, which does not receive retinal input via the SCN, should be unaffected.

Within the three photoperiods, 19L:5D, 5L:19D, and 12L:12D, the number of TH-IR neurons are similar. Because there is a consensus within each photoperiod, this is indicating that circadian fluctuations are not contributing to neurotransmitter respecificaiton.

In panel C, before KCl depolarization, there is observable fluorescent signals from FFN511, indicating dopamine uptake. Upon KCl depolarization, the fluorescence is diminished; this is indicative of dopamine release. The results of panel C are consistent with panel A and B in that during the long day light condition (19 hours light, 5 hours darkness), the fluorescence signal is the lowest, which means less dopamine being taken up.

Panel B: The fact that in all three photoperiod conditions, dopamine is colocalized with TH validates the use of TH as a marker of dopamine synthesis.

The researchers found that neurotransmitters are not actually fixed upon maturation, but are, in actuality, dynamic and can be affected by sensory stimuli such as longer or shorter photoperiods. Changes in transmitter expression result in behavioral changes as well. Thus, follow up research can explore what other sensory stimuli can change transmitter expression and also examine the corresponding behaviors that are regulated by those transmitters.

Shortening the length of daylight the rats are exposed to induced the formation of new dopaminergic neurons and thereby restored the rats' previous (normal) behaviors, i.e., the rats no longer displayed anxious and depressed behaviors.

Using drugs to prevent dopamine production resulted in anxious and depressed behaviors by the rats; these same behaviors were also observed following extended day length exposure.

When more of the neurotransmitter dopamine is produced, there is also an increase in the postsynaptic dopamine receptor. Likewise, when less dopamine is produced, it follows that there is a decreased expression of dopamine receptors. However, for somatostatin, this was not the case. Regardless of whether somatostatin production is increased or decreased, the somatostatin receptor expression is unchanged.

The results from the simulated extinction, along with the measurement of network interaction patterns (modularity, nestedness, and specialization), were all similar between O'hau and other tropical or non-tropical locations.

The authors conclude that plants and animals at different sites across the island develop their own unique pattern of interactions, whether the sites are populated by mostly native or novel species.

Referring to figure 3, the majority of dissimilarity across sites was due to linkage turnover, represented as the gray bars. This means that even though the sites shared similar species, the interactions were different.

The authors found that the majority of the sites in O'ahu had different sets of interactions between plant and bird species.

The authors concluded that introduced species do not necessarily have to be evolutionarily related to native species to form similar interaction networks. This conclusion was based on their results demonstrating that introduced species on the island successfully formed modular networks comparable to the networks that were formed between native species. 

The introduced birds and plants integrate successfully into the ecosystem of O'ahu because they follow the same strategies used by the native plants and birds: creating beneficial relationships with specific species and carefully sharing the resources of the island with other organisms. 

The authors concluded that overall, the complex network structures of the island's ecosystem on both the local and regional scale remained the same, even though these networks were now infiltrated with invading plant and animal species.

At individual sites, the authors again saw species mostly interact with only a subset of the total partners available. 

The authors concluded that the majority of plants and animals involved in the seed dispersal networks of O'ahu are introduced species, and that the majority of seeds being dispersed by these birds are from introduced plant species.

The authors identified 44 different plant species and 15 different birds in O'ahu. Figure 1 depicts each bird (left column) and each plant (right column) as rectangles. The lines connecting a bird to a plant represent a seed dispersal event.

The result shows that early intervention can decelerate the spread of COVID-19.

To calculate the percentage used here, the authors first calculated the difference in the average numbers of laboratory-confirmed cases for two groups of cities. The difference was then divided by the number of cases for cities that introduced controls later.

By referring to the cumulative number of cities that reported COVID-19 cases and comparing the spreading trend to that of the H1N1 pandemic, the authors concluded that the spread of COVID-19 was rapid.

when finishing a paper make sure to add transition phrases such as " finally" , " so", " in conclusion".

Reactions catalyzed by Rma cyt c have distinct advantages such as high chemoselectivity and enantiospecificity over reactions catalyzed by organometallic catalysts.

Free alcohols and primary amines are reactive functional groups that do not interfere with this enzymatic carbene-transfer reaction.

Rma cyt c exhibits preference for carbon-silicon bond formation over other competing side reactions.

The wild-type protein chosen must exhibit some degree of activity for the desired reaction. When compared to hemin, hemin with bovine serum, a range of cytochrome P450 and myoglobin variants, it was found that Rma cyt c showed 97% ee. This was chosen as the enzyme that would form the starting point for directed evolution.

Altering the amount of time that a rat is exposed to light in a day leads to changes in the type of neurotransmitters being expressed by a set interneurons located in the hypothalamus. When the rat's daily light exposure is restricted to a shorter time frame, those interneurons favor dopamine expression. In contrast, longer daily periods of light exposure results in those same interneurons favoring somatostatin expression.

Of all seeds found on bird poops, 93% are of introduced plant species

The authors summarized all major findings in this paragraph.

The simulated result agrees with the actual data, revealing that simultaneously taking both measures may be the reason for the reduction in the total case number.

The simulated patterns of transmission with single or no intervention taken are different from the actual scenario shown in Fig. 4A. The discrepancy means that neither of these interventions could overturn the spreading and growth of COVID-19 in China when implemented individually.

The significant reductions in the case reproduction number due to the regional (stage 1) and massive (stage 2) implementation of transmission control measures point to the importance of intervention in stopping the epidemic.

The transmission control measures were also found effective in reducing the total number of cases.

Reaching the peak of the number of confirmed cases means that an epidemic stops growing and turns to an end. Thus, reaching the peak sooner is desired in this case.

The coefficients in Table 2 are statistically significant. This means that each coefficient is significantly different from the value under the null hypothesis of no correlation, indicated by the probability for the null hypothesis to be true, P, smaller than 0.01.

These results indicate correlations between the factors shown in the table and the number of laboratory-confirmed cases.

The authors summarized measures taken by different cities and the timing of responses.

The differences in the types of measures and the timings of their implementations offer directions for the correlational studies present in the later sections of this paper.

The Wuhan lockdown was found to effectively delay the spread of COVID-19 to other cities in China.

Based on the statistically significant correlation shown in Figure 2C, the authors concluded that the outflow of people from Wuhan before the shutdown is positively associated with the spread of COVID-19.

This finding lays a foundation for the later examination of the effectiveness of the Wuhan shutdown in slowing the dispersal of COVID-19.

A sharp drop in the number of movements from Wuhan confirmed the effectiveness of the travel ban.

Because we do not have sequence data on all outbreaks occurring after measles emerged as a human virus, we cannot say if all outbreaks of similar diseases were caused by measles or a similar related virus that then died out.

When human populations were large enough, this virus mutated again and kept spreading throughout human populations. This virus eventually became modern-day measles.

Bovine virus mutates quickly because it is an RNA virus. It may have mutated so that it was able to infect humans on multiple occasions. However, human populations were not yet at the critical community size, so the virus died out.

Before measles became a disease of humans, its predecessor, bovine virus, was common in cattle and possibly other hoofed mammals. This bovine virus was already distinct from peste des petits ruminants virus which is the virus most closely related to it.

Nonsynonymous mutations change the sequence of a protein and are more likely to cause changes in function, while synonymous mutations don't change the protein and are silent in terms of function.

When vaccines for measles were introduced the number of people infected declined significantly this caused many strains to die out.

Although transition metal catalysis offers several advantages, the metals typically used are toxic. Removal of these metals after the synthetic process is time consuming and expensive. The process described in the research ensures sustainability and reduces cost.

Functional group protection and deprotection increases the number of steps and auxiliary agents during synthesis and is not considered green. The methodology described in this research obeys one of the principles of green chemistry: "Unnecessary derivatization (use of blocking groups, protection/deprotection, temporary modification of physical/chemical processes) should be minimized or avoided if possible, because such steps require additional reagents and can generate waste."

Axial methionine in cyt c is known to be labile. The proposed model for the binding for the iron-silane complex is one where the complex forms such that the silane molecule takes the place of the axial methionine. The silane may approach from the more exposed side in the protein. This further explains the observed stereochemistry of the organosilicon product. The V75T, M100D, and M103E mutations are thought to improve reactivity by providing better access of the substrate to the iron center.

Certain iridium catalytic systems show 97% ee, while copper catalysts show 35% ee and rhodium has been shown to exhibit 77% ee.

When studying larger areas of the island, the authors observed that species engaged in only a small portion of the possible interactions available, with groups of species specifically interacting amongst each other.

Invasive species can maintain interactions and behaviors with their surroundings similar to the native species they replaced, even if both species are not related.

Rma cyt c V75T M100D M103E variant is not the most evolved protein. This is considered only as a starting point to future enzymes that will show greater selectivity.

With each mutation, the chemoselectivity of the enzyme is greatly enhanced. V75T M100D M103E favors the carbon-silicon bond 29 times more than the wild type. This is attributed to the improved binding and orientation of the silicon donor in the enzyme's active site.

Heme proteins are required for the reaction to occur.

By treating the mice with anti-CTLA-4, the authors were able to prevent tumor growth in two mice and delay it considerably in the other three.

The mice described in this section rejected the tumors twice: the first time, they were being treated with anti-CTLA-4, and the second time, they were not. This means that their immune system was able to fight off the second tumor on its own, and much faster than the immune systems of mice which had not previously survived exposure to the tumor. These are hallmarks of immunologic memory, the same phenomenon that ensures you only get chicken pox once in your life.

The authors repeated the experiment with an even lower tumor burden of 1x106 cells and found that the effectiveness of treatment was reduced at this dose. They do not propose a reason for this; perhaps you can think of one?

The third group of mice was treated with antibodies targeting CTLA-4. Those mice were able to clear the tumors more quickly, by day 17, if they developed tumors at all.

The authors suggest that their devices can be used by other scientists to observe things such as how camouflage can affect predator/prey relationships. Because these devices are non-living things but have the same camouflaging capabilities of some living things, they can avoid using animals for testing and experiments; something that is unavoidable otherwise.

The authors show us here that their devices can camouflage in the visible light spectrum as well as the IR spectrum. This is something animals cannot do, and this shows that animals are limited in their camouflaging capabilities while their devices are not limited.

This result sentence tells us that the robots have successfully camouflaged themselves because they have differences in brightness that mimicked the environment. Since the brightness patches did not outline the device structure, it blended right in.

This results sentence shows that the robot's dexterity, or ability to move easily/freely, was not heavily affected by the addition of the color layer. To elaborate on their point, they show that the robot with the color layer was 0.6 times the robot without a color layer. In short, the robot with the color layer is only a bit slower than the robot without one.

The most awesome set of conclusions I've read in a paper in years!

This device could not only be used for pharmaceutical drugs, but since the enzyme activity was unaltered after compression, that suggests that protein-based and nucleic acid-based therapies, such as gene silencing, could be performed by this device. If further testing suggests that there are no long term effects, SOMAs could potentially replace the current insulin delivery methods, improving diabetic patients' quality of life.