Visual representations of auditory-driven visual percepts observed by participants as per their descriptions/drawings. Depictions are consistent with Kluver form constants.

Proportion of trials in which participants observed visual percepts for louder (70 dB) and softer (60 dB) beep trials for experiment 2. Auditory-driven visual percepts were significantly more likely to occur following a loud sound than following a soft sound (**).

Proportion of trials in which participants observed visual percepts as spatially aligned, spatially misaligned, or spatially undefined with the location of the sound for experiment 2. Auditory percepts were significantly more likely to occur at the spatial location of the sound (***).

Proportion of trials in which participants observed visual percepts for trials that involved a beep and trials that did not involve a beep for experiment 2. Participants demonstrated significantly more visual percepts in response to beep trials than in response to non-beep trials (***).

Proportion of trials in which participants observed visual percepts for trials that involved a beep and trials that did not involve a beep for experiment 1. Participants demonstrated significantly more visual percepts in response to beep trials than in response to non-beep trials (*).

Experiments 1 and 2 results.

bottom-horizontal fMRI images of someone wo experienced anoxic lesions to their posterior corpus callosum, resulting in permanent coma following head trauma.

Sagittal fMRI image of an individual who displayed content-specific changes in experience (feeling of intention to move) following electrical stimulation of the temporoparietal cortex.

Mid-sagittal fMRI image of an individual who displayed content-specific changes in experience (intrusive thoughts) following electrical stimulation of the ACC.

Bottom-horizontal fMRI image of an individual who displayed content-specific changes in experience (inability to perceive faces) following electrical stimulation of the fusiform gyrus.

anatomical images depicting clinical evidence for the full (A, B, C) and content-specific (D, E, F) NCC.

mid-sagittal fMRI image of someone who experienced anoxic lesions to their posterior corpus callosum, resulting in permanent VS following head trauma.

Bilateral view of the left and right frontal lobes of someone who experienced extensive prefrontal lobe damage without a noticeable change in consciousness, with certain anatomical regions labeled (top). Lateral view of the left and right hemispheres of that same individual, with certain anatomical regions labeled (bottom).

The NCC and related processes represented in a diagram of the brain. Content-specific NCC are represented in red, full NCC are represented in orange (as a union of all content-specific NCC), neuronal activating systems and global enabling factors modulating full NCC activity are represented in green, processing loops modulating some content-specific NCC are represented in beige, sensory pathways modulating some content-specific NCC are represented in pink, and outputs from NCC are represented in blue.

Accuracy percentage as a function of confidence within male and female participants in experiment 3.

Accuracy and confidence were significantly positively correlated for both males and females.

Accuracy percentage as a function of confidence between male and female participants in Experiment 3.

Accuracy and confidence were significantly positively correlated for both males and females, and females increased their accuracy as a function of confidence more so than males did.

Accuracy percentage as a function of confidence rating within male and female participants in experiment 1.

Accuracy percentage as a function of confidence rating between male and female participants in experiment 1.

Mean accuracy percentage (along with sample size and standard deviation) for males and females and effect size of sex difference in accuracy percentage for all conditions of each experiment.

Effect size of sex difference in accuracy percentage was significant in the first and second experiments (p < .05; p < .01), the confidence condition of the third experiment (p < .001), the high confidence condition of the fourth experiment (p < .01), and the low confidence condition of the fourth experiment (p < .06).

Magnitude of effect size in sex differences as a function of problem position.

Shows that the magnitude of sex difference effect size increased the further subjects got into the set. I.e., the further subjects got into the set, the greater the sex difference in performance was (males outperformed females).

The figures that are shown in the Vandenburg and Kuse MRT. The target stimulus is the leftmost stimulus shown here. Two of the stimuli to the left of the target figure are rotated versions of the target figure, and two of them are distractor figures. Participants had to identify which figures were rotated versions of the target figure.

Percentage of problems attempted as a function of problem position for males and females in the first and second sets of study 1.

Both males and females would attempt less problems the further they got in the set, but this effect was greater for females than for males. Also, both males and females attempted more problems the further they got in the second set than in the first set, revealing a practice effect.

Alpha lateralization index scores for correct and incorrect responses to valid and invalid trials in the 75% condition. Alpha lateralization index score showed no statistical trends (p = 0.532).

Differences in alpha lateralization index between high and low RT trials by cue reliability percentages. Differences in alpha lateralization index between high and low RT trials significantly decreased with cue reliability percentages (p < 0.01).

Differences in alpha lateralization index between correct and incorrect trials by cue reliability percentages. Differences in alpha lateralization index between correct and incorrect trials showed a statistical trend of decreasing with cue reliability percentages (p = 0.081).

Alpha lateralization index scores for high and low RT responses to valid and invalid trials in the 75% condition. Alpha lateralization index score showed a near statistically significant trend of having a higher ratio of low RT to high RT trials for the invalid trials than for the valid trials (p = 0.056).

Alpha lateralization index scores for low RT and high RT trials in the 100% reliability condition. Alpha lateralization index score is significantly higher for low RT than high RT trials (p < 0.05).

Alpha lateralization index scores for correct and incorrect trials in the 100% reliability condition. Alpha lateralization index score is significantly higher for correct than incorrect trials (p < 0.05).

Topographical plots showing pre-stimulus alpha power in sensors as a contrast between attention left and attention right (-0.06 to 0.06) in the 100%, 75%, and 50% conditions. Pre-stimulus alpha power in sensors over left and right somatosensory regions showed significant lateralization in the 100% and 75% conditions. Pre-stimulus alpha power in the sensor over the left somatosensory region showed significant lateralization in the 50% condition, and the effect was much weaker than in the other conditions.

Bar graph showing alpha lateralization index (0 to 0.06) for the 100%, 75%, and 50% cue reliability conditions. Alpha lateralization index significantly decreased with cue reliability percentage.

Standardized brain volume showing pre-stimulus alpha power sources as a contrast between t-values (-5 to 5) for attention to left hand and attention to right hand in the 100% condition. Pre-stimulus alpha power in sources from the right and left sensorimotor cortices showed significant lateralization such that t-scores were higher in the right somatosensory region during left hand attention and higher in the left somatosensory region during right hand attention.

Average frequency versus time for alpha power in sensors over right and left somatosensory regions in the 100% condition. Alpha power showed a sustained decrease during the prestimulus interval (t = -1 to 0 s). Left hemispheric sensors were mirrored to combine them with right-hemispheric sensors, which is why only attention left alpha power is shown in this plot.

Topographical plot showing pre-stimulus alpha power in sensors as a contrast between attention left and attention right (-0.06 to 0.06) in the 100% condition. Pre-stimulus alpha power in sensors over left and right somatosensory regions showed significant lateralization such that alpha power was higher in the right somatosensory region during the left trials and higher in the left somatosensory region during the right trials.

Discrimination rate (% correct) for valid and invalid cue trials in the 50%, 75%, and 100% cue reliability conditions, and reaction time (in ms) for valid and invalid cue trials in the 50%, 75%, and 100% cue reliability conditions.

Experimental procedure. Subjects were cued on which hand they should attend to using an arrow (0.2 s), presented with a pre-stimulus interval fixation cross (1.0-1.8 s), presented with an electrical target stimulus to the cued hand and an electrical distractor stimulus to the non-cued hand (0.24 s), presented with a fixation cross during which they performed the discrimination task (max 1.5 s), and then presented with a fixation cross that indicated whether or not they successfully performed the task (0.2 s).

Effect size, lower confidence interval, and upper confidence interval (with grand mean for each) for all studies analyzed (with experiment and grade for each) with Forest Plot of effect sizes.

five-point confidence judgment scale, from least to most confident.

three-point confidence judgment scale, from least to most confident.

Number that will be estimated and number line that will be used to estimate on number line estimation task.

Mean values of contrast thresholds for MC-biased and PC-biased stimuli in men and women. Contrast thresholds for the MC-biased stimuli were significantly lower than contrast thresholds for the PC-biased stimuli in both men and women.

Slope for visual search reaction time (measured in ms) in women (white) and men (black). No significant differences.

Visual search reaction time (measured in ms) in women (white) and men (black). No significant differences.

Threshold for which participants achieved 75% correct responses in identifying the orientation of a Gabor patch in women (white) and men (black). No significant differences.

% of correct interpretation for upright 800ms biological motion in females (white) and males (black). No significant differences.

% of correct interpretation for upright 200ms biological motion in females (white) and males (black). No significant differences.

% of correct interpretation for inverted 800ms biological motion in females (white) and males (black). Men had a significantly higher percentage of correctness than women at the p<0.05 level.

% of correct interpretation for inverted 200ms biological motion in females (white) and males (black). No significant differences.

% of coherent dots needed to detect motion direction for females (white) and males (black). Females needed significantly more dots to detect motion direction than males did at the p<0.05 level.

Contrast detection threshold for females (white) and males (black) measured in cd/m^2. No significant differences.

Reaction time on the Simon task for females (white) and males (black) measured in ms. No significant differences.

Reaction time on a simple reaction time task for females (white) and males (black) measured in ms. Females had significantly slower reaction time than males at the p<0.001 level.

Stimulus onset asynchrony time (measured in ms) to show 75% accuracy rate for the Vernier discrimination task with the 25 element mask in women (white) and men (black). Women needed a significantly longer SOA time than men to show a 75% accuracy rate (p<0.05).

Stimulus onset asynchrony time (measured in ms) to show 75% accuracy rate for the Vernier discrimination task with the 5 element mask in women (white) and men (black). Women needed a significantly longer SOA time than men to show a 75% accuracy rate (p<0.05).

Performance of females (white) and males (black) on the Vernier discrimination task (measured in ms). No significant difference.

Performance of females (white) and males (black) on the Freiberg visual acuity task (measured in decimals). Males performed significantly better on this task than females at the p<0.001 level.

The illusions that participants were tested on, including the Ebbinghaus illusion (EB), the Muller-Lyer illusion (ML), the Ponzo illusion (PZ), the Ponzo-hallway illusion (PZh), and the tilt illusion (TT). For each illusion, the participants were presented with two versions of the illusions that were different sizes (EB, PZh), lengths (ML, PZ), or orientations (TT), and were asked to alter one of the illusions to match the size, length, or orientation of the other illusion.

Simon task, which measured participants' difference in accuracy or reaction time between trials in which stimulus and response are congruent and trials in which they are incongruent.

Visual search task, which measured participants' ability to select a specific image within an array of similar images.

Contrast detection threshold task, which tests the participants' contrast detection threshold. Participants were presented with a red circle and then a green circle over time, and were told to indicate in which circle an image appeared.

Orientation discrimination task, which tests the participants' orientation discrimination ability.

Biological motion direction discrimination task for upright and inverted point-light walkers, which tests the participants' biological motion direction discrimination ability.

Freiburg visual acuity task, which tests the participants' visual acuity.

Visual backwards masking task, which tests the participants' visual backwards masking ability. First stimulus is shown, then an inter-stimulus interval (ISI; blank screen) is shown, then one of two second stimuli are shown.

Vernier duration task, which tests the participants' ability to detect a misalignment between visual stimuli.

Comparison of fMRI and EEG imaging of activations from 0ms to 100ms and 100ms to 200ms using identical Talairach Z planes. Activation was very similar between the two (EEG confirms fMRI data).

Visual depiction of significant brain activity recorded by EEG 0ms to 100ms following image presentation, 100ms to 200ms following image presentation, and 300ms to 400ms following image presentation. Activation for correct over incorrect tool use are shown in red, and activation for incorrect over correct tool use are shown in green.

EEG recordings of the left and right parietal regions of the brain showing ERPs (magnitude over time) when presented with images of contextually correct tool use, contextually incorrect tool use, and tools only. The first line represents when participants were presented with the cue, and the second line represents when participants were presented with the image. For both the right and left parietal regions, magnitude immediately following image presentation was significantly higher for incorrect tool use than for correct tool use and tools only, and magnitude at about 300ms to 400ms following image presentation was significantly lower for correct tool use than for incorrect tool use or tools only.

EEG recordings of the left and right temporal regions of the brain showing ERPs (magnitude over time) when presented with images of contextually correct tool use, contextually incorrect tool use, and tools only. The first line represents when participants were presented with the cue, and the second line represents when participants were presented with the image.

fMRI images of brain areas significantly activated by comprehension of incorrect tool use (green) vs correct tool use (red) from different orientations (anterior, posterior, lateral (left), lateral (right), dorsal, and ventral).

fMRI images of significant differences in brain activation for identifying correct tool use when compared to identifying tools alone (above), and identifying incorrect tool use when compared to identifying tools alone (below).

Participants were recorded using EEG for 2 15 m blocks with a 3m resting period between each block. During each block, participants were presented with twenty-five images of incorrect tool use (2s), twenty-five images of correct tool use (2s), and twenty-five images of tools alone (2s; control), with fixation crosses (4s to 6s) and a cue (500 ms) being presented before each image and fixation crosses (4s to 6s) being presented after each image.

Participants were recorded using fMRI for six 5m trials with 1m rest periods between each trial. During each trial, participants were presented with eight images of correct tool use (2s), eight images of incorrect tool use (2s), and eight images of tools alone (2s; control), with fixation crosses presented between each image (6s to 8s).

Paired-pulse facilitation did not yield significant differences between groups.

Input/output curve plotting EPSP slope against presynaptic fiber volleys. fEPSP slopes were significantly different for the juv-adol ELE and adol ELE mice but not for the juv ELE mice when compared to controls.

input/output curve plotting EPSP slope against stimulus intensity showed a main effect of ELE group, effect of stimulus intensity, and significant interaction between ELE group and stimulus intensity. fEPSP slopes were significantly higher for the juv ELE and juv-adol ELE mice but not for the adol ELE mice when compared to controls.

LTP significantly increased in response to theta burst stimulation for juv-adol ELE mice, but not for juv ELE or adol ELE mice in comparison with controls.

Enhanced LTP in juv-adol ELE mice lasted for 50-60 minutes following the theta burst stimulation, significantly more than it did for controls.

There were no significant differences between any groups of male and female mice in terms of total time spent exploring objects.

In male mice, juv-adol ELE mice and juv ELE mice showed a significantly higher preference for the object placed in the novel location when compared to no ELE mice and adol ELE mice. In female mice, juv ELE mice showed a significantly higher preference for the object placed in the novel location when compared to no ELE mice, juv ELE mice, and juv-adol ELE mice. All male ELE mice demonstrated significant object preference from acquisition to testing when compared with male no ELE mice. Female juv ELE and juv-adol ELE mice demonstrated significant object preference from acquisition to testing when compared with female adol ELE mice and no ELE mice.

The 3 min OLM acquisition task did not result in significant object discrimination (object preference) in any groups of mice, regardless of sex. 3 min-trained, sedentary male and female mice demonstrated significantly lower object discrimination than 10 min-trained, ELE male and female mice.

There were no significant differences between any groups of male and female mice in terms of total time spent exploring objects.

For all groups of male and female mice, a 5 min OLM testing task 24 h after the 10 min OLM acquisition task resulted in significant object discrimination (object preference) for the object placed in the novel location. No group demonstrated discrimination for the novel object significantly more than any other group.

The 10 min OLM acquisition task did not result in significant object discrimination (object preference) in any groups of mice, regardless of sex.

For both male and female mice, distance traveled significantly decreased over the six OLM trials, indicating that the mice were habituated to the OLM chambers.

Two groups of mice did an object location memory (OLM) task for either 3 or 10 minutes, and then all mice did that same task again for 5 minutes 24 hours later with one of the objects moved to a different location.

All mice in the juv-adol ELE group, juv ELE group, and adol ELE group significantly increased their running distances during the three week exercise period.

In the juv-adol ELE group, the juv ELE group, and the adol ELE group, there were no significant differences in distance ran between male and female mice.

In male mice, the juv ELE group gained significantly more weight than the juv-adol ELE group. In female mice, the stationary group gained significantly more weight than the sedentary group, the juv-adol ELE group, and the adol ELE group.

Young male and female mice were split into four groups over a period of three weeks. One group of mice was sedentary from the first to the third week (sed), one exercised for the first week (juv ELE), one exercised from the first to the third week (juv-adol ELE), and one group of mice exercised for the third week (adol ELE). After this, all mice were either tested for object location memory or sacrificed for electrophysiology.

The group that was administered oxytocin was significantly less likely to sacrifice an in-group member than an out-group member when compared with the group that was administered placebo.

The group that was administered oxytocin was significantly less likely to sacrifice an in-group member than an out-group member when compared with the group that was administered placebo.

Both groups associated uniquely human emotions with in-group members more frequently than with outgroup members, but the oxytocin group associated uniquely human emotions with in-group members more frequently than with outgroup members significantly more than the placebo group.

In experiment 1, both in-group regard and out-group disregard were significantly higher for the group administered oxytocin than for the group administered placebo.

In experiment 2, in-group regard was significantly higher for the group administered oxytocin than for the group administered placebo. Out-group disregard was not significantly different between groups.