Experimental evidence sug-gests shading similar to that expected from FPV may lead toincreased phytoplankton biomass and reduced macrophytebiomass,50 though this remains to be tested
Inferring how primary producers respond to light and shade using experimental data is an example of an experiment-based method.
Using ourmeasured emissions per kWh, we can estimate that at present,FPV-derived GHG emissions from waterbodies are 6.7 GgCO2-eq year−1 (assuming ∼1000 kWh kWp−1). At modeledpractical potential generation of 9434 TWh year−1, FPV-derived waterbody GHG emissions may increase to 24.6 TgCO2-eq year−1.
It uses a method that scales up global emissions based on measured GHG output per unit of energy (like per kWh).
we estimate a 26.8% increase in greenhouse gasemissions following FPV installation using a carbon dioxide-equivalent basis.
This sentence explains a method that estimates greenhouse gas emissions using the CO₂-equivalent standard.
Rates of bubble accumulation were similarbetween pond types (p = 0.955; Figure S4A), so any changesin CH4 ebullition associated with FPV installation must havebeen driven by differences in bubble CH4 concentration�indeed, the CH4 concentration in bubble trap headspace inponds with FPV (60.0 ± 4.70% CH4) was nearly twice as highas in ponds without FPV (34.4 ± 4.00% CH4; p < 0.001;Figure S4B).
Measurement of bubble accumulation rate is an experimental monitoring technique.
Combin-ing measured dissolved gas concentrations and k600 values toestimate diffusive CO2 and CH4 flux, we found that, onaverage, whole-pond diffusive CO2 emissions were 23.6 ±7.50% lower and diffusive CH4 emissions were 17.5 ± 25.1%lower following FPV deployment (Figure 6A and Table S4).
Diffusive flux calculation through numerical integration is a quantitative modeling method.
Using a BACI approach, we demonstrate that FPV deploymentwith 70% coverage led to increased pond GHG emissionswithin days of deployment, and this effect lasted for weeks tomonths. Increased emissions were driven by greater CH4ebullition which offset reduced diffusive CO2 and CH4emissions in FPV-covered ponds.
BACI (Before-After Control-Impact) is a classic ecological experimental design.
wecalculated whole-pond diffusive flux, assuming edge area forboth control and treatment ponds was 270 m2, the pond centersurface area for control ponds was 630 m2, pond center surfacearea for treatment ponds was 270 m2 (this subtracts the totalarea of FPV array that is in physical contact with the watersurface), and that fluxes were constant over a 24 h period.
The method for scaling experimental results to the whole pond is described.
We compared GHG dynamicsbetween ponds with and without FPV using a mixed modelapproach in R Statistical Software following a BACIapproach.
Descriptions of the statistical analysis methods are provided.
measuring linear rates ofCO2 and CH4 accumulation (or depletion) in a floatingchamber (18.93 L; 0.071 m2 cross-sectional area) connected toa cavity-ringdown spectroscope (Los Gatos, Inc.) for 5 minand collecting surface water and air samples for analysis of CO2and CH4 concentrations from the same location immediatelyafter the 5 min incubation period as described previously
The measurement approach using floating chambers is described.
Diffusive exchange of dissolved gases between ponds and theatmosphere (mmol m−2 h−1) can be calculated from dissolvedgas concentrations as35k C Cdiffusive flux ( )x water air=where Cwater and Cair indicate the gas concentration (μmol L−1)in the water and atmosphere, respectively
Equations used to calculate diffusive flux are described.
We calculatedebullitive flux asVebullitive flux CH bubble volumefunnel area time4m= [ ] ×× ×where [CH4] is the concentration of CH4 in the trap (μL L−1)and Vm is the molar volume of gas at standard conditions (22.4L mol−1).
Specific equations used for calculations are explained.
We deployed passive bubbletrap samplers from May to October 2023 to measure rates ofebullitive CH4 flux.
The use of bubble traps and how they are utilized is described.
Wecalculated dissolved gas concentrations using constantsdetermined by Weiss32 and Wiesenburg and Guinasso.
Constants used in calculations and literature-based methods are mentioned.
using a gas chromatograph equipped with a flameionization detector and autosampler (Shimadzu GC 2014).
The name of the analytical instrument is specifically mentioned.
We sampled for dissolved GHGconcentrations in pond surface water on two occasions in2022, and 14 occasions in 2023 using a headspace equilibrationapproach.
The headspace equilibration method is described.
We characterized the temperature and dissolved oxygenconcentrations of the water column in each pond using athermistor and an optical dissolved oxygen sensor attached to aManta +35 or a Manta +20 instrument (Eureka Water Probes,Austin, TX).
Specific instrument and sensor names are explicitly stated.
Floating solar arrays (Ciel etTerre International, France) were deployed on three ponds:the FPV array on pond 124 was constructed from June 15−29,2023, pond 123 from June 29 to July 14, 2023, and pond 125from September 18−28, 2023.
The source of the installation equipment and the details of the experimental setup are explicitly provided.
Using these measure-ments, we calculated diffusive CO2 and CH4 emissions andcompared total GHG emissions between ponds with andwithout FPV.
The calculation method and the comparison reference are described.
We measured water column temperature,dissolved oxygen saturation, and dissolved CO2 and CH4concentrations in surface and bottom waters, quantified ratesof CH4 ebullition, and determined treatment-specific air−watergas exchange rates (i.e., k600 values)
The specific measurement parameters used in the experiment, along with the calculated coefficient k600, are mentioned.
We deployed FPV arrays on constructed ponds at the CornellExperimental Pond Facility in New York, USA in summer2023 (Figure 1). Arrays were designed to maximize powerproduction potential and thus also potential impacts (70%panel coverage)
The installation method and the design intention of the PV experimental array are specifically described.
Here, we report results from the first two years of anecosystem-scale experiment used to test the effect of FPVdeployment on GHG dynamics and atmospheric GHGexchange in pond
This sentence presents a method using ecosystem-scale experiments to measure the effect of FPV on GHG exchange.
Here, we usean ecosystem-scale experiment to assess how GHG dynamics in ponds respond toinstallation of operationally representative FPV
This sentence describes the use of ecosystem-scale experiments as a tool to measure GHG dynamics before and after FPV installation.
. In order to establish the mentionedcountry-specific database, a national strategy should belaunched.
A methodological proposal for building a database is presented.
The GWP results of the base scenario of this study is 5.24g CO 2 eq/kWh.
The GWP calculation is an output of tools commonly used in LCA.
Realdata based on monthly energy generation collected from awind farm for a year indicates capacity factors ranging from21 to 64% with an average value of 40%.
It demonstrates the collection and application of actual measured data.
The results obtained by changing the recycle ratioof metals at EoL are given in Fig. 5.
An LCA analysis tool was used to derive results under varying conditions.
In this part of the study, two scenarios involving the trans-portation of the main units during the construction phase andthe metal recycling ratios at end-of-life (EoL) are analysed.
A scenario analysis methodology was employed.
The main uncertainty in thisLCA is the considered amount of recycling in the futureafter decommissioning the wind farm, and the impact of thisuncertainty on the results is handled by performing scenarioanalysis for various recycling ratios.
Scenario analysis represents a typical methodological approach to addressing the uncertainty inherent in LCA.
Electricity consumption during the manufacturing andinstallation stage is strictly measured by the service providerto determine the cost. Similarly the exact amount of dieselconsumption is obtained from the facility records.
Measurement and record-based data collection methods are utilized as tools in the study.
The contribution of various phases of life cycle to environ-mental impact categories are shown in Fig. 3.
Data is derived through visualization of the results obtained from the LCA analysis method.
The LCA study is performed as given in ISO 14040/14044standards (ISO 2006a, b). Therefore, goal and scope defini-tion, inventory analysis, impact assessment and interpreta-tion are conducted in an iterative way.
The LCA implementation procedure, the use of international standards (ISO 14040/14044), and the iterative steps involved describe the specific methodological tools and processes employed in the research.
The objective of this study is to apprise the envi-ronmental impacts of a full-scale wind farm via LCA meth-odology in a cradle to grave scope.
This sentence outlines the methodological framework of this particular study(LCA over the entire life cycle).
The study by Jianget al. (2018) examines the environmental impacts of gearboxvia LCA.
Clearly states LCA as the method applied to study a specific component (gearbox), thus demonstrating methodology in practice.
. LCA is used to examine the environ-mental impacts of a wind farm with 76 turbines of 1.5 MWin another study (Ozoemena et al. 2018)
This explicitly describes the use of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as the method employed in the cited study.
The aim of this study is to investigate the environmental impacts of a full-scale wind farm using life cycle assessmentmethodology.
It clearly states the method used in the study (LCA), aligning directly with the “tools and methods” category.
We therefore adviseresearchers to earn trust and foster healthy working relation-ships with Indigenous peoples to determine research prioritiesand agreements long before data collection begins (Lake et al.2017)
It outlines concrete practices for building trust and setting priorities prior to data collection.
Research design should then unfold in acollaborative and transparent manner, with input from IKholders (Adams et al. 2014
It clearly explains the collaborative approach in the research design process and the methodological inclusion of IK holders.
At the onsetof collaborative studies, scientists should first develop researchagreements with Indigenous peoples in whatever form islocally appropriate, a step independent of any institutionalethics approvals
It presents specific methodological procedures that must be undertaken during the early stages of research, such as the establishment of research agreements.
McBride et al. (2017) usedParticipatory Geographic Information Systems that drew uponand analyzed IK observations from Indigenous peoples acrossthe US related to fuel load, forest type, and burn severity.
It is a specific example of tool use that combines GIS technology with IK.
trackers could provideauxiliary natural history data whereas radio tracking waslimited solely to data on movement.
It compares the types of data each method can collect, highlighting the advantages of IK-based tools.
Attum et al. (2008) demon-strated that estimates of Egyptian tortoise (Testudo klein-manni) home ranges in North Sinai, Egypt, derived fromradio telemetry were in agreement with estimates byIndigenous people, who tracked tortoises on foot,
It presents a specific methodological comparison between two tools: radio telemetry and direct tracking.
In the example mentioned above,Riedlinger and Berkes (2001) also described how Inuit observa-tions and hypotheses of climate change in northern Canadacould account for multiple interacting variables and ecologicalcomplexity, such as climate variability and sea-ice break up.
The approach of using observation and hypothesis to explain complex system variables reflects a methodological aspect.
Similarly, Bonta et al. (2017) testedhypotheses about how fire-foraging raptors in tropicalsavannas in Australia could deliberately spread wildfires bycarrying burning sticks to unburned areas to flush outpotential prey species.
It outlines an experimental research method in which hypotheses derived from IK are scientifically tested.
For instance,Riedlinger and Berkes (2001) detailed contexts in whichInuit developed hypotheses based on their own observa-tions, such as the prediction that increased winterkill ofcommon eiders (Somateria mollissima) would follow irregu-lar sea-ice conditions.
It describes a specific methodological example of hypothesis formation based on observation by the Inuit.
Polfus et al. (2014) developed habitatmodels for woodland caribou (Rangifer tarandus caribou)based on IK from the Taku River Tlingit First Nation ofnorthern British Columbia, and showed a high degree ofsimilarity between resource selection functions (RSF) thatestimated habitat use derived from IK and collared caribou.
It describes a specific methodology involving the development of a habitat model using IK. / It utilizes place-based information about habitats in a specific region (northern British Columbia).
Long-termobservations by Indigenous peoples amountsto monitoring of species and ecosystems,which carries abundant potential for rapidand sensitive detection of contemporary eco-logical changes (Berkes et al. 2007; Serviceet al. 2014; Thompson et al. 2019)
It points out that IK itself functions as a long-term monitoring tool.
Catley (2006) found agreement in diseaseidentification and diagnostic criteria between Indigenouspastoralists and veterinarians in their independentapproaches in monitoring livestock health. TranslatingIndigenous terms into a format recognizable by veterinari-ans, and vice-versa, enhanced livestock surveillance systemsby providing culturally relevant disease diagnostic criteriafor use in rural areas.
It specifically addresses the harmonization of diagnostic criteria as a methodological approach.
Polfuset al. (2016) described how the Sahtú Dene and Métis peo-ples of northern Canada distinguished among geneticallydifferent populations of boreal, mountain, and barren-ground caribou based on unique behaviors, habitat prefer-ences, and morphology, with subsequent genetic analysesproviding evidence of distinct caribou subpopulation struc-ture that aligned with Dene classifications.
The classification through IK is shown to align with scientific genetic analysis, representing a tool-based integration.
distribution of non-invasive hair snares from which datawere subsequently used in a DNA-based capture–recaptureanalysis.
It incorporates field-based knowledge into research design and uses non-invasive methods (e.g., hair snares), as well as place-based information about specific habitat areas.
Housty et al. (2014) developed andapplied a monitoring program for grizzlybears (Ursus arctos horribilis) in HaíɫzaqvTerritory (coastal British Columbia), explic-itly guided by the Gvi’ilas (customary law) ofthe Haíɫzaqv people.
It mentions the development of a specific monitoring program and the tools on which its design is based, such as the Gvi’ilas law.
While often used on its own or in parallel to science, IK is alsoincreasingly interwoven with data collected via the scientificmethod, and vice versa (that is, scientific methods are incorpo-rated into contemporary processes underlying IK generation).
The explanation that a convergence is occurring between scientific methods and IK addresses the intersection between different methodologies.
. IK is often augmented with contemporary obser-vations and experiences that refine accumulated knowledge andallow for flexibility and adaptability in the context of environ-mental and social change.
The process of modifying and adapting existing knowledge through modern observation and experience clearly pertains to tools and methods.
Thevaried contributions of IK stem from long periods of observation, interaction, and experimentation with species, ecosystems, andecosystem processes.
The process of forming IK is based on observation, interaction, and experimentation, which describes the methodology of knowledge creation.
The study offers some bright sides for floating solar: When comparing floating solar to terrestrial solar in total emissions cost, from site development to maintenance and disposal
It explains the scope of the comparative study (from development to disposal), thereby illustrating the category of evaluation methods.
This is the first manipulative study to produce empirical results.
It states that a manipulative study was conducted.
Grodsky and collaborators covered three ponds at the Cornell Experimental Pond Facility with solar panels, at 70% coverage, and found that, almost immediately, methane and carbon dioxide emissions
This sentence provides a detailed explanation of the experimental method, including the experimental site (Cornell Experimental Pond), experimental conditions (70% panel installation), and measurement indicators.
Housty et al. (2014) developed andapplied a monitoring program for grizzlybears (Ursus arctos horribilis) in HaíɫzaqvTerritory (coastal British Columbia), explic-itly guided by the Gvi’ilas (customary law) ofthe Haíɫzaqv people. The approach combinedHaíɫzaqv cultural values with their knowl-edge of bears, salmon, and people in animportant large watershed.
It mentions the development of a specific monitoring program and the tools on which its design is based, such as the Gvi’ilas law.
While often used on its own or in parallel to science, IK is alsoincreasingly interwoven with data collected via the scientificmethod, and vice versa (that is, scientific methods are incorpo-rated into contemporary processes underlying IK generation).
The explanation that a convergence is occurring between scientific methods and IK addresses the intersection between different methodologies.
. IK is often augmented with contemporary obser-vations and experiences that refine accumulated knowledge andallow for flexibility and adaptability in the context of environ-mental and social change.
The process of modifying and adapting existing knowledge through modern observation and experience clearly pertains to tools and methods.
Thevaried contributions of IK stem from long periods of observation, interaction, and experimentation with species, ecosystems, andecosystem processes.
The process of forming IK is based on observation, interaction, and experimentation, which describes the methodology of knowledge creation.
A qualitative research was em-ployed by reviewing papers in the scope of the study.
It specifies a methodology for reviewing papers using qualitative research methods.
Renewable energy reduces energy imports and contributediversification of the portfolio of supply options and reduce an economy’s vulnerability to price vola-tility and represent opportunities to enhance energy security across the globe.
The explanation of energy supply portfolio diversification represents a structural approach to the energy supply system through renewable energy.
Distributed grids based on the renewable energy are generally more competitive in rural areaswith significant distances to the national grid and the low levels of rural electrification offer substan-tial openings for renewable energy-based mini-grid systems to provide them with electricity access
This sentence presents an approach using distributed power grid technologies based on renewable energy.
The change in total GHG emissions in European EnvironmentalAgency (EEA) countries for 1990–2012 and their GHG emissions per capita are depicted in Figures 2and 3.
It presents specific figures on greenhouse gas emission changes and demonstrates the methodology to track them.
Wind turbines convert the energy of wind into electricity.
It explains the method of electricity generation using wind, specifically describing the conversion tools and technologies.
Solar energy technology is obtained from solar irradiance to generate electricity using photo-voltaic (PV) (Asumadu-Sarkodie & Owusu, 2016d) and concentrating solar power (CSP), to producethermal energy, to meet direct lighting needs and, potentially, to produce fuels that might be usedfor transport and other purposes
Photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) are explicitly mentioned as direct technological means.
Heat is mined from geothermal reservoirs using wells and other means.
It explains specific methods for extracting geothermal resources.
water is drained from lakes and watercourses andtransported through channels over large distances and to pipelines and finally to the turbines thatare often visible, but they may also go through mountains by created tunnels inside them
This sentence explains the flow path and method of water for hydropower generation, describing the methodology for constructing hydropower facilities and directing water movement.
Turbines are constructed for an optional flow of water
Since this sentence refers to the attempt to achieve efficiency through the introduction of technical methods such as hydropower facility design (turbine design), it falls under tools and methods.
Fortunately, the continuous technological advances in computer hard-ware and software are permitting scientific researchers to handle these optimization difficulties usingcomputational resources applicable to the renewable and sustainable energy field
This sentence addresses a method of solving problems using computer hardware, software, and optimization techniques. Since it mentions the use of computational resources to address “optimization difficulties,” it falls under tools and methods.
Grodsky and collaborators covered three ponds at the Cornell Experimental Pond Facility with solar panels, at 70% coverage, and found that, almost immediately, methane and carbon dioxide emissions
This sentence provides a detailed explanation of the experimental method, including the experimental site (Cornell Experimental Pond), experimental conditions (70% panel installation), and measurement indicators.
This is the first manipulative study to produce empirical results.
It states that a manipulative study was conducted.
The study offers some bright sides for floating solar: When comparing floating solar to terrestrial solar in total emissions cost, from site development to maintenance and disposal
It explains the scope of the comparative study (from development to disposal), thereby illustrating the category of evaluation methods.
A qualitative research was em-ployed by reviewing papers in the scope of the study.
It specifies a methodology for reviewing papers using qualitative research methods.
Distributed grids based on the renewable energy are generally more competitive in rural areaswith significant distances to the national grid and the low levels of rural electrification offer substan-tial openings for renewable energy-based mini-grid systems to provide them with electricity access
This sentence presents an approach using distributed power grid technologies based on renewable energy.
Renewable energy reduces energy imports and contributediversification of the portfolio of supply options and reduce an economy’s vulnerability to price vola-tility and represent opportunities to enhance energy security across the globe.
The explanation of energy supply portfolio diversification represents a structural approach to the energy supply system through renewable energy.
The change in total GHG emissions in European EnvironmentalAgency (EEA) countries for 1990–2012 and their GHG emissions per capita are depicted in Figures 2and 3.
It presents specific figures on greenhouse gas emission changes and demonstrates the methodology to track them.
Wind turbines convert the energy of wind into electricity.
It explains the method of electricity generation using wind, specifically describing the conversion tools and technologies.
Heat is mined from geothermal reservoirs using wells and other means.
It explains specific methods for extracting geothermal resources.
Solar energy technology is obtained from solar irradiance to generate electricity using photo-voltaic (PV) (Asumadu-Sarkodie & Owusu, 2016d) and concentrating solar power (CSP), to producethermal energy, to meet direct lighting needs and, potentially, to produce fuels that might be usedfor transport and other purposes
Photovoltaic (PV) and concentrating solar power (CSP) are explicitly mentioned as direct technological means.
water is drained from lakes and watercourses andtransported through channels over large distances and to pipelines and finally to the turbines thatare often visible, but they may also go through mountains by created tunnels inside them
This sentence explains the flow path and method of water for hydropower generation, describing the methodology for constructing hydropower facilities and directing water movement.
Turbines are constructed for an optional flow of water
Since this sentence refers to the attempt to achieve efficiency through the introduction of technical methods such as hydropower facility design (turbine design), it falls under tools and methods.
Fortunately, the continuous technological advances in computer hard-ware and software are permitting scientific researchers to handle these optimization difficulties usingcomputational resources applicable to the renewable and sustainable energy field
This sentence addresses a method of solving problems using computer hardware, software, and optimization techniques. Since it mentions the use of computational resources to address “optimization difficulties,” it falls under tools and methods.