In Ramayana, Rama is always the hero. He is the embodiment of the perfect man. Paley's take on the story recenters this view as she dives deep into the character of Sita. This allows the viewer to dissect what a hero really is. Her bravery and strength makes her a hero, but she isn't celebrated for it. In fact, it seems that life punishes her for it. We see her heroic acts in her decision to follow him into exile, in her resilience during captivity under Ravana, and in the strength it takes to face suspicion from the man she loved to the very end of her life. There is an apparent contradiction in the original tale. Sita must bear the weight of the many hardships she faces without a word while Rama is never really critiqued for throwing her away, even when he knew for a fact that she was completely faultless.

Gender Politics and the Hero in Ancient Literature © 2026 by Elshaddai Tefera is licensed under CC BY-SA 4.0. To view a copy of this license, visit https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

Sita Sings the Blues has an interesting mix of ancient and modern views of masculinity, as the source text Ramyana was very heavy in its views of gender roles. Sita is a damsel in distress character without a real voice even, mirroring how Nina Paley felt about her relationship, and she depends on Rama for everything, being made to serve him as his wife. Rama is meant to be an extremely masculine figure, who follows his duties perfectly and deals with hardships flawlessly. By way of his isolation due to exile, it makes him similar to modern heroes such as Spider-Man who is known for working alone. Both are tragic heroes who have been delt bad hands in life, Rama , through his spiteful stepmother and exile, and Spider-Man through his "Parker luck." Their love interests are also used similarly. When Sita is kidnapped, it gives Rama a reason to dominate the king Ravana via combat, to show that he is more of a man. Spider-Man's most infamous love interest, Gwen Stacy is also the victim of kidnapping although for different reasons. In the Spider-Man's case, instead of him proving himself as more of a man than the Green Goblin, fails. It becomes a great shame for the hero for over five decades. Both Gwen Stacy and Sita are victims because of the men they love and are used as weak spots for them. The difference with Spider-Man, that shows change in modern perspective of masculinity is that he not seen as weak for his failures nor is he any less popular. In fact, Spider-Man who was created by Stan Lee and Steve Ditko who was created with the intention of not being a stereotypically masculine superhero is one of the most, if not the most, popular modern heroes. While Rama is valued for being perfect, Spider-Man is valued for being flawed and human.

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Here, we see Yudhishthira both structurally and morally reinforcing dharma, which also serves to non-explicitly reinforce caste - a religious-political tool distinctly useful to a ruler such as himself.

Dharma itself is presented in the Mahabharata, and more directly here in Draupadi, as the divine rule one must follow in life to be ethically integral. In the simplest terms, a ruler must rule, a warrior must fight, and a laborer must labor. As presented across the Mahabharata, to go against one’s dharma is a slight against the gods, family, and fellow man, while to follow dharma brings one happiness and enlightenment in life.

This plays into caste, as, while Dharma outlines the ‘why’ for how one must keep to their place in life, caste is the system produced based off of these laws. Caste defines the rigid social strata into which one is born and cannot ascend or descent. It determines profession on a familial level.

It is in no way surprising that Yudhishthira strongly supports Dharma because, as a ruler, the caste system it supports provides him with a populace split into strictly measured and predictable workforce groups. It propagates a religion in which his people are not simply secularly forced to heed his rule, but ethically and spiritually as well.

[1] Narayanan, Vasudha. “Hinduism - Caste System, Dharma, Varna.” Britannica, 20 July 1998, www.britannica.com/topic/Hinduism/Castes.

In The Epic of Gilgamesh, Gilgamesh is perceived as a hero due to his hypermasculine features, even when he is tyrannical because physical strength is what was valued in men. One could argue that the ideal man in any society would be one that is considered a hero, and in our modern concessions the best heroes cannot just be strong but must also be kind. Two of the most "ideal" heroes, Captain America and Superman, are men who along with being built like bodybuilders are also kind first and foremost, they stan for hope. This is how our modern conception has changed. Gilgamesh's tyranny is not seen as a good thing in the story, it is about he can change despite seemingly having everything. The difference is that many modern heroes start good. Still, other elements besides the strength stay the same, for example, these heroes also must have some kind of enhancement like Gilgamesh did. He was made by a goddess to be perfect just like Steve Rogers was made to be perfect by the super soldier serum, and Clark Kent was made to be superpowered by the sun.

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This piece, a drinking vessel in the shape of a fist, is a clear example of how masculinity was viewed in the ancient near east. It is sculped in a way that shows extraordinary physical strength with rough, detailed knuckles, insinuating to violence. The size of the hand further captures the masculine figure. The imagine on the cuff of the hand depicts the "Great King Tudhaliya" as he pours a ritual liquid in front of an alter for the storm god, with five of his followers witnessing, some of whom are playing instruments. Since the carving represents a king, the strength shown is now from a common man who gained his physique through physical labor but a trained noble or king who's strength would be used for battle and power rather than agriculture. It shows what these societies expected from their leaders -- from them to be hypermasculine powerful men who help strength for violence and defense. This also compares to our current expectations for leaders, it's traditionally standard for a man to be head of a household and for men to practice sternness, be athletic, and to control in some way. Men, historically, held almost every position of power within the US government and abled bodied people are valued more than than those with disabilities.

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The Persians differs from stories such as The Epic of Gilgamesh and Ramayana by the power that women in the story hold as well as how it critics the actions of Xerxes. Atossa is not a hopeless damsel in distress who watches her son through himself at death to avenge his father, she goes to the elders to use her political power to make her son pull back from Athens.

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Here, instead of Darius being represented sternly, he tries to be empathetic to his son's plight in Atossa's dream. This shows Darius having not only strength but intelligence, adding to what is seen as masculine. Aeschylus, living in Athens -- a hub of intellect -- respected Darius for having this trait despite their homes being sworn enemies. Treating Darius like a hero creates a dynamic character we still see in modern heroes. While Superman is revered for his strength and character, others like Batman and Mister Fantastic are admired for their intelligence. Masculinity being associated with intelligence is not a new concept either -- men are not expected to be mindless oafs -- schools were opened only for men for most of history with women being barred off from the life of a scholar. Aeschylus' unique perspective as an Athenian would value educated and competent minds.

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Xerxes is insulted for his violence rather than praised at they are actions taken without proper thought. Unlike Gilgamesh who is praised for his strength no matter how said strength is being used, showing the differences in a man's role -- particularly a ruling man. In ancient Persia it was more valued to rule with compassion rather than fear and the eradication of your enemies, Xerxes goes against this.

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Draupadi's representation of masculinity continues with physical strength, with violence through display of competent weapon use. Their violence is used to win over women, as if their objects, just as it's used to win wars. Violence ties in to how men have been expected to be superior, to be demanding as violence is used to protect that power. With the modern superhero, weapons are often numerous, although, with modern standards of the hero those with lethal weapons are regarded as anti-heroes. The heroes of the modern age have morals against killing, compassion now being valued along with strength. Even with superheroes who maintain a dark demeanor, stoic and emotionless, such as Daredevil and Batman can maintain non-lethality making them dynamic characters in the eyes of masculinity. Despite their masculinity, they do not kill, they care for others. and they give hope while also being powerful both in status and physical strength.

Women, nonparticipants in masculinity, are just as important to the modern hero as they were to the ancient, and often in the same manner. They are used as motivation for the masculine protagonist, just as Draupadi is used here to make the Five Pandavas show off their masculinity. Daredevil has had a plethora of love interests, but they differ from this damsel in distress stereotype as they are all women with enough power to protect themselves. Karen Page is a journalist who often takes on controversial stories that land her in trouble and Elektra Natchios went through the same combat training as the man himself as well as having more social status and wealth than him. This has in no way been the standard for modern hero's love interests but it certainly shows a change in how women are viewed. One of the most famous examples of how woman can be used to boaster the performance of heroic men is in Green Lantern #54 (1994) where the hero protagonist find his love interest, Alexandra DeWitt, murdered and stuffed in a fridge. This plotline is used simply for the hero to be called into action against the villain who committed such a heinous act. From this came the term "women in refrigerators", a phenomenon where women are disproportionately made to be the victims of violence in media, often for the sake of giving the male protagonist as call to action.

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Wikipedia contributors. "Women in refrigerators." Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia. Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia, 28 Mar. 2026. Web. 4 May. 2026.

I think it’s interesting how this quote sets up Draupadi as both divine and "earthy" at the same time. In terms of Religious Politics, this version focuses on her "steely will" as a virtue rather than just seeing her as a victim of fate. She uses her intelligence to actually question the leaders and the law, which turns her personal struggle into a direct critique of the "condemned deeds" of the men in power. It shows that her heroism comes from her refusal to stay silent in a society that wasn't exactly kind to women.

The linguistic value is seen in the contrast between "fire" and "earthy." Older translations usually focus on the "fire" part to keep her as this distant, untouchable goddess, but this scribe uses "earthy" to make her feel more human and real. This shift in language reflects a modern mentality that tries to break away from that typical patriarchal mindset where female characters are just symbols. By calling her a "total woman," the translator is essentially reclaiming her agency and making an ancient religious text feel relevant to our time.

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Draupadi: The Queen of the Pandavas. Edited by Anant Pai, retold by Kamala Chandrakant, illustrated by Pratap Mulick, no. 72, India Book House Pvt. Ltd., 1986, p. 2.

One of the most important parts to Sita's story in the Ramayana is that Sita is kidnapped by Ravana and when Rama rescues her she must prove herself to still be pure via trial of fire. It's insinuated that Ravana has raped Sita and now she is sexually sullied. Despite the nonconsensual nature Rama still accuses Sita of being dirty, refusing to comfort her after a traumatic event. With the modern hero, this idea is not completely discarded. Jessica Jones, one of the more prominent woman heroes of modern comics, has a similar traumatic history to Sita. She was kidnapped under mind control and forced to do sexual as well as violent acts for a man named Zebediah Killgrave or Purple Man due to his purple skin. In the 2019 comic. Jessica Jones: Purple Daughter by Kelley Thompson, Jones is accused of cheating on her husband, Luke Cage, when their daughter's skin turns purple. Despite Jones' trauma, Cage fails to support her in the ways that she needs from her partner just as Rama had failed Sita. Cage does eventually come to be a supporting figure, more so scared for his family than forcing his wife to walk through fire. Still, the theme of women being victim blamed for assault persists with the modern hero, speaking to a larger societal issue of how women are treated and how toxic forms of masculinity can influence ones actions.

Matter, Brittany. “‘Jessica Jones: Purple Daughter’: The Creators on How Jessica’s Past Continues to Haunt Her.” Marvel, Marvel Entertainment, 25 Jan. 2019, www.marvel.com/articles/comics/jessica-jones-purple-daughter-the-creators-on-how-jessica-s-past-continues-to-haunt-her.

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In this film, religious values are used to show the difference between "traditional duty" and "personal fairness." In the original Ramayana, Rama’s choice to kick Sita out is seen as a virtue because he is putting his reputation as a king first. However, this version reframes that virtue as a condemned act of abandonment. It shows how religious politics can sometimes be used to justify hurting women in the name of purity or tradition.

A big high point is the way the shadow puppets talk. They don't use fancy religious language. They use everyday language as if they are gossiping about the gods. This reflects a modern mindset that questions authority rather than just blindly following. By using simple, modern talk, the film strips away the old patriarchal seriousness and makes the story feel like something that could happen to anyone today.

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Sita Sings the Blues. Directed by Nina Paley, Channel 13 / WNET, 2008. SitaSingsTheBlues.com, http://www.sitasingstheblues.com/watch.html.