Lefebvre was deeply critical of the totalitarian statesocialism that came to exist in the Soviet Union, Eastern Europe, and China. Many of his peers, suchas Cornelius Castoriadis, Guy Debord, Gilles Deleuze, Felix Guattari, and Michel Foucault, wereall appalled by Stalinism, both in the Soviet Union and in the French Communist Party of the time.As a result, the work of all these thinkers is as much a reaction against the state and bureaucraticdomination as it is against capitalism. So it is important to be clear just what Lefebvre understoodsocialism to be. It is not at all a bureaucratic socialism in which the state is seized and dominated

Their mission statement acknowledges Lefebvre as an influence as well as the tradition ofhuman rights

The mostdeveloped example of this strategy is in the United States, where the national Right to the CityAlliance4brings together community-based organizations in an effort to achieve a wider scalarimpact on various urban problems. Member of Community-Based Organizations (CBOs) work onissues such as gentrification, environmental justice, homelessness, cultural preservation, juvenilejustice, and the well-being of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) youth.

oal is clearly to eventually establish these rights as formal legal protections guaranteed by the state.In addition to the Charter for Women’s Right to the City and the Montreal Charter, there are manysimilar initiatives working in this human rights vein. These include the Mexico City Charter for theRight to the City (Wigle & Zarate, 2010), the European Charter for Safeguarding Human Rights inthe City,1the World Charter of the Right to the City,2the Global Charter-Agenda for Human Rightsin the City advanced by a group called United Cities and Local Governments,3

Equal accessfor women to the power and resources of government will result in important material gains forpeople who are currently discriminated against.

Sometimes the right to the city is advanced by the United Na-tions (UN) itself,

burgeoning

So Lefebvre sees a struggle for new rights and a new contract as initiating a “renewal of politicallife” that sets us on a path, moving toward a horizon, toward a possible world beyond the stateand beyond capitalism

The law thus means that the Brazilian state must recognize explicitly that urbanspace serves a complex social function in addition to its economic function. However, it does not seekto move beyond property rights; it merely seeks to balance the interests of property owners

The goal is to encourage urban policies that promote justice, sustainability, andinclusion in cities.

The college experience is a stimulating and demanding time in a student’s life where a multitude of curricular and extra-curricular situations require frequent and heavy use of direct, focused attention and concentration (Wentworth & Middleton, 2014). Thus, university students as a group are at a higher risk of attentional fatigue.

As an influential landscape designer of early campuses, Fredrick Law Olmstead worked with the philosophy that the physical landscape features had a direct impact on shaping human behavior

Campus construction was sparse during the Depression and World War II of the 1930s and 1940s. A dramatic post-war increase in student enrollment - 2.5 million to 7 million from 1955 to 1970 (Bowman, 2011)

reconceptualize

We also recognize that outdoor class instruction is not suited or appropriate for all academic domains.

Direct attention is, therefore, an important cognitive skill required on a daily basis for students processing multiple sources of information, and working towards their academic goals at universities. After a period of prolonged cognitive demands and mental saturation, difficulties in concentrating, reduced performance on tasks, higher rates of irritability and tension, and more impulsive and hostile behavior may arise

we expand the campus ‘learning environment’ to also include a university’s open space, we also include in our definition of nature, the concept of a “landscape.”

“that open space must be treated as a scarce resource” (

holistic landscape

Well-designed and connected networks of indoor and open spaces on campuses can be key, yet typically overlooked catalysts,

holistic

Student grass-root efforts of the 1970s and the college campus sustainability movement that began with the first Earth Day, increased public awareness that environmental protection is a critical issue.

The advent of land-grant institutions through the Morrill Act of 1862 required new buildings to be built with laboratories and observatory space for agricultural, technical education, and scientific research

anecdotal evidence of the architect’s

seful[ly]” decided to route highways through the center of cities, often with the intent “to destroy low-income and especially black neighborhoods in an effort to reshape the physical and racial landscapes of the postwar American city.”153 Although this w

ses tools of exclusion such as racially restrictive covenants and exclusionary zoning, never does it men

ing as a ‘neutral’ design.”54 Indeed, some c

ionary suburbs are spatial entities; . . . access, exclusion, confinement . . . are spatial experiences.58 For example, Li

which, if the intent were clear, would not be permissible today

Instead of garnering support to pass a law banning poor people or people of color from the places in which he did not want them

Moses’s biographer suggests that his decision to favor upper- and middle-class white people who owned cars at the expense of the poor and African-Americans was due to his “social-class bias and racial prejudice.”83

paradigmatic

Yet the bench may have been created this way to prevent people—often homeless people—from lying down and taking naps.

The first two methods of discrimination have received sustained attention from legal scholars; the third form, which I refer to as architecture, has not. This Part departs from tradition by focusing on architecture instead of ordinances and social norms.

Bridges were designed to be so low that buses could not pass under them in order to prevent people of color from accessing a public beach.