For example, Morrell and Duncan-Andrade had students read, discuss, analyze, and critique hip-hop texts by Grandmaster Flash, Nas, and Public Enemy to make connections to canonical poetry texts by Whitman, Shakespeare, and Angelou. In a similar way, Kirkland (2007) incorporated hip-hop texts by artists such as Run DMC, Queen Latifah, and Lil' Kim for a unit called "The Classroom, the Community, and the World," which focused on human experience from a black urban perspective. Kirkland found that through the unit, students met the literacy standards outlined by IRA and NCTE.

he rich rhetorical devices unique to speakers of African American language (AAL) to oppose the view of AAL as inferior and assert its sociolinguistic importance to the identities and cultures of many African Americans.

Labov's (1972) groundbreaking work, Language in the Inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular, demonstrated empirically the structure, uses, and logic of African American Vernacular English (AAVE). The importance of work by Labor and others working within the field of sociolinguistics

I focus on the essay of only one student, Robert (pseudonym), because his analysis of a hip-hop text led me to the serious study of scholarship on hip-hop language and literacy

I discovered the validity of using hip-hop in the classroom and that students, including ones who are labeled underprepared or have been placed in developmental or remedial classes, are in a position to educate us if we are willing to listen.

Despite research that argues that standardized tests like the ACT are biased against the linguistic backgrounds of African American students (Fleming & Garcia, 1998), these tests are still used to gain entry to university programs so as to protect the myth that there is one standard English that is superior to other variations. To address the above contradiction, at least at the pedagogical level, in this paper, I examine the writing of one African American student in a transitional college English class to identify hybrid language practices resulting from this student's linguistic background

The doors to higher education opened during the late 1960s and 1970s in large part because of demands made by African American and Latino students. Despite this cultural and demographic shift, a narrow view of Standard American English (SAE) still dominates in the academy (Fox, 1999; Kynard, 2008).

Global Linguistic Flows has the potential to be a critical piece in our repertoire ofknowledge on youth cultural expression and identity formation

keepin' itreal,to navigate through hip-hop waters. Eyedea is described as indexing his whiteness viathe maintenance of "local" speech patterns,

he "roots" of this musical and cultural form is not a project of finite space andtime, but one of a circular nature that flows in and around Africa, the Americas, andworldwide. Whether representin the Bronx, Somalia, or aboriginal Australia, hip-hopmusic, culture, and language cross the globe.

They offer the cipha, a circular call and response space, as one of the mainspeech events of the genre

"Dusty footphilosopher means the one that's poor, lives in poverty but lives in a dignified mannerand philosophizes about the universe and talks about things that well-read people talkabout, but they've never read or traveled on a plane"

It goes without saying, then, that language is also a political instrument, means, and proof of power. It is the most vivid and crucial key to identity: It reveals the private identity, and connects one with, or divorces one from, the larger, public, or communal identity.

The argument has nothing to do with language itself but with the role of language. Language, incontestably, reveals the speaker. Language, also, far more dubiously, is meant to define the other

I say we teach languagedescriptively. This mean we should, for instance, teach how language functionswithin and from various cultural perspectives. And we should teach what it taketo understand, listen, and write in multiple dialects simultaneously

translatin one dialect into another one. It’s blendin two or mo dialects, languages,or rhetorical forms into one sentence, one utterance, one paper. And not all thetime is this blendin intentional, sometime it unintentional. And that’s the point.The two dialects sometime naturally, sometime intentionally, co-exist! This is codeswitching from a linguistic perspective: two languages and dialects co-existing inone speech act (Auer

Code meshing is the new code switching; it’s mulitdialectalism and pluralingual-ism in one speech act, in one paper.

Code meshing what we all do whenever we communicate—writin, speakin, whateva.Code meshing blend dialects, international languages, local idioms, chat-roomlingo, and the rhetorical styles of various ethnic and cultural groups in both formaland informal speech acts

wouldnt everybody belearnin everybody’s dialect? Wouldnt we all become multidialectal and pluralin-gual? And that’s my exact argument, that we all should know everybody’s dialect,at least as many as we can, and be open to the mix of them in oral and writtencommunication (Young)

Standard language ideologyis the belief that there is one set of dominant language rules that stem from a singledominant discourse (like standard English) that all writers and speakers of Englishmust conform to in order to communicate effectively. Dominant language ideologyalso say peeps can speak whateva the heck way they want to—BUT AT HOME

when folks dont get no jobs or get fired or whatever cuz they talk andwrite Asian or black or with an Applachian accent or sound like whatever aint thestatus quo. And Fish himself acquiesce to this linguistic prejudice when he comesaying that people make theyselves targets for racism if and when they dont writeand speak like he do.But dont nobody’s language, dialect, or style make them “vulnerable to preju-dice.” It’s ATTITUDES. It be the way folks with some power perceive other people’slanguage. Like the way some view, say, black English when used in school or atwork.

A frequently encountered struggle we face as writers is when the “right”words don’t come to us easily. For instance, as a college senior and a highschool English Language Arts (ELA) student-teacher, Sara recalls the expe-rience with a writing assignment for her Secondary Education course andfacing a blank MS Word screen for what felt like a number of hours. Sararemembers thinking, “¿Como empezar? The right words aren’t coming tome. I don’t know what is more frustrating, that I know I have a paperdue and I can’t get it started, or that I’m actually dedicating this time tomy frustration?”The struggle with finding the “right” words has a lot to do with how wehave been taught to censor our voices, how we extend monolingual ideologyon ourselves. But one way to counter this struggle is by proceeding to write(sketch, outline, list, draw) whatever words and ideas come to us as wethink about the task at hand.

as people who dolanguage on a daily basis in different and plural ways, we/you, writers mustwork to gain confidence and a sense of pride in our own diverse multilin-gual practices

ny time you are about to start a “new” writing assignment, you arealready equipped with ample ways of voicing and translating, with toolsand ways of knowing. Tuning into the abundance of your voice, identi-fying its many variations and how these plural ways of voicing work withand for different types of audiences, is a way to continue building on yourexperiences, your linguistic resources, as language architects. The more youpractice your different ways of communicating, the stronger and broaderthese resources become.

Our strong belief that who we are and how we critically use languagematters in our writing is sustained by an understanding of language iden-tified as translingualism

what is considered “good” and “clear” writing great-ly depends on this dominant system of values.Our workin’ of language(s) then reckons with the damage brought onby monolingual ideology. As Dr. April Baker-Bell, Associate Professor ofLanguage, Literacy, and English Education, rightly argues in her book onLinguistic Justice, the judgment of Black Englishes in all their rich variantforms as “lesser than” so-called standard English constitutes linguistic rac-ism

In the same way that one might start an argumentative essay byreviewing the literature, staking out an intervention, making that interven-tion, defending it from counterarguments, and summarizing and suggestingnew avenues for research in the conclusion, a DJ might engage in stylisticpractices that referenced a song’s sampling pedigree, challenged one songwith another, sped up the beats per minute of one song so that it came intobetter rhythm with another, and leave the crowd with a body-jarring headbanger of an outro. The compositional elements are not dissimilar.

In this way DJs might be understood asperforming a literature review, paying tribute to the Marvin Gayes, the Slyand the Family Stones, and other artists who came before the newer sound.Such acts of mixing demonstrated a DJ’s bona fides.

Hip-hop’s willingness to sample and appropriatewords, lyrics, and beats has allowed hip-hop artists to do much more withmusic than was previously done. Far from the way white artists would stealblack artists’ songs in the early days of rock and roll, hip-hop artists oftenwillingly acknowledge what they take as a demonstration of their musicalknowledge. For example, DJs used to comb through record stores looking forthe most obscure beat to sample

“Real Gs move in silence like lasagna” is a prime exampleof how seriously hip-hop artists take language and wordplay. Upon hearingthe line, it doesn’t make much sense to most people. What do lasagna andsilence have in common? Yet, when one has the line printed, the messagebecomes clear. The silent “g” in “lasagna” makes the point about a “G” mov-ing in silence, “G” being the slang for a gangsta

These sorts of connections and complexrhyming make rap so interesting because words that do not seem to rhymeare actually quite connected together.

One does not need to understand the complexities of language tohear the ways in which these sounds connect in complex ways to producenot simply the rhyme at the end of the line but also the internal rhymes thatdraw on consonance and assonance to make some of the most complex raplyrics

Hip-hop has reshaped language. Hip-hop culture has added words nowprominent across music disciplines and the world. Terms such as “trap,”“ratchet,” “gully,” “twisted,” “gold digger,” “wanksta,” “bling,” “crib,” and “lit”all have a hip-hop provenance or have been popularized through hip-hop.To be sure, not all hip-hop linguistic innovations make their way into themainstream, but those that do often have a lasting influence

simplistic notion of the ways in which brain cellstransmit electrical charges, but that is what makes it powerful. From braincell transmissions to fires, the idea of it being lit expresses a kinetic form ofenergy that is both passionate creativity and a rocking good time.

ne of the first to use the term “lit” as a laudatory statement.

Now this workseems to occur largely in the iPhone’s notes app, but it still happens regularly,and I catch myself doing it as if I had a record deal and was going to be fea-tured on the next remix of a popular song. Big Daddy Kane rapped about hislyric creation process that

offers a new way to think aboutcomposition by asking writers to consider how the audience or the readermight respond and what role that response should have in composition.

English would arguethat Tupac is Shakespeare, that kind of comparison is not necessary to justifyhip-hop’s study. Shakespeare and Tupac are different, and both are worthy ofstudy in the same classroom

push “practical” knowledge and application in English andvirtually every other discipline. The turn toward studying hip-hop helps thisby breaking down the high-culture/low-culture divide that has caused someto be suspicious about the utility of English in college

This change hasled English studies to bridge the gap between the academy and popular cul-ture, allowing English as a discipline to push back against criticisms that allit does is read Shakespeare

Blackauthors of the city have long represented some of the most interesting writ-ing of the last century or so. Richard Wright, Ralph Ellison, and ChesterHimes are virtuosos worthy of more study than they currently receive. Inmany ways, today’s hip-hop artists carry on the legacy of these authors

“tool of thepatriarchy.” It is a tool for anyone who wishes to use it, and who is willing to put the timeand effort into mastering it,

substitute “their own language” — or worse, teaching them that our common language issomehow evil — merely sets them up for failure.What’s more, we further erode public confidence in our ability to produce job-readygraduates. (In many surveys over the past 10 years, employers consistently identify poorcommunication skills as one of their chief complaints about new hires.)The responsibility for helping students learn to use standard American English effectively,and insisting that they do so, cannot fall solely on the English department. The purpose offirst-year composition courses should be to introduce students to the basics of goodprofessional communication — grammar, sentence structure, organization, paragraphdevelopment. If subsequent courses do not build upon and reinforce those fundamentals,then students will conclude that such skills must be not all that important. That appears tobe the case, if those employer surveys are any indication.As academics, we rose to positions of privilege and authority based in large part on ourability to “speak the language.” It seems to me the height of arrogance and hypocrisy, if notoutright discrimination, to deny students access to those same opportunities, whether wedo so intentionally or simply through neglect. Our objective as educators ought to be tohelp them attain what we have attained, if not more — and language proficiency is anecessary prerequisite.In short, standard American English is not inherently racist. It is not merely a “tool of thepatriarchy.” It is a tool for anyone who wishes to use it, and who is willing to put the timeand effort into mastering it, regardless of race, gender, ethnicity, cultural background, orsocioeconomic status.Nor will students — once they leave our cushy campuses and enter the professional world— be able to talk and write any way they choose, any more than they will be able to dress orbehave any way they want. Preparing them adequately for life beyond college is arguablyour greatest responsibility — and up to this point, perhaps our biggest failure.

Before attempting to speak this language, a learner must acknowledge these spirits with gifts of tobacco and food. Anyone who attempts Ojibwemowin is engaged in something more than learning tongue twisters. However awkward my nouns, unstable my verbs, however stumbling my delivery, to engage in the language is to engage the spirit. Perhaps that is what my teachers know, and what my English will forgive.

Ojibwemowin is also a language of emotions; shades of feeling can be mixed like paints. There is a word for what occurs when your heart is silently shedding tears. Ojibwe is especially good at describing intellectual states and the fine points of moral responsibility.

For years I saw only the surface of Ojibwemowin. With any study at all one looks deep into a stunning complex of verbs. Ojibwemowin is a language of verbs. All action. Two-thirds of the words are verbs, and for each verb there are as many as 6,000 forms. The storm of verb forms makes it a wildly adaptive and powerfully precise language. Changite-ige describes the way a duck tips itself up in the water butt first.

Fluent speakers have had to fight for the language with their own flesh, have endured ridicule, have resisted shame and stubbornly pledged themselves to keep on talking the talk.

I want to get the jokes. I also want to understand the prayers and the adisookaanug, the sacred stories, but the irresistible part of language for me is the explosion of hilarity that attends every other minute of an Ojibwe visit. As most speakers are now bilingual, the language is spiked with puns on both English and Ojibwe,

The language bit deep into my heart, but it was an unfulfilled longing. I had nobody to speak it with, nobody who remembered my grandfather's standing with his sacred pipe in the woods next to a box elder tree, talking to the spirits. Not until I moved back to the Midwest and settled in Minneapolis did I find a fellow Ojibweg to learn with, and a teacher.

or years now I have been in love with a language other than the English in which I write, and it is a rough affair. Every day I try to learn a little more Ojibwe. I have taken to carrying verb conjugation charts in my purse, along with the tiny notebook I've always kept for jotting down book ideas, overheard conversations, language detritus, phrases that pop into my head. Now that little notebook includes an increasing volume of Ojibwe words.

history had been "whitened" - when white menhad written history books, the black man simply had been left out. Mr. Muhammad couldn't havesaid anything that would have struck me much harder.

I jumped into bed and feigned sleep. And as soon as the guard passed, I got back out ofbed onto the floor area of that light-glow, where I would read for another fifty-eight minutes untilthe guard approached again

When I had progressed to really serious reading, every night at about ten P.M. I would beoutraged with the "lights out." It always seemed to catch me right in the middle of somethingengrossing.

months passed without myeven thinking about being imprisoned. In fact, up to then, I never had been so truly free in my life

my word-base broadened, I could for the first time pick up abook and read and now begin to understand what the book was saying. Anyone who has read agreat deal can imagine the new world that opened.

I woke up the next morning, thinking about those words - immensely proud to realize thatnot only had I written so much at one time, but I'd written words that I never knew were in theworld. Moreover, with a little effort, I also could remember what many of these words meant. Ireviewed the words whose meanings I didn't remember. Funny thing, from the dictionary firstpage right now, that "aardvark" springs to my mind. The dictionary had a picture of it, a long-tailed, long-eared, burrowing African mammal, which lives off termites caught by sticking out itstongue as an anteater does for ants.

In my slow, painstaking, ragged handwriting, I copied into my tablet everything printed on thatfirst page, down to the punctuation marks

Finally, just to start some kindof action, I began copying.

I saw that the best thing I could do was get hold of a dictionary - to study, to learn some words.I was lucky enough to reason also that I should try to improve my penmanship.

It was because of my letters that I happened to stumble upon starting to acquire some kind of ahomemade education.I became increasingly frustrated. at not being able to express what I wanted to convey in lettersthat I wrote, especially those to Mr. Elijah Muhammad. In the street, I had been the most articulatehustler out there - I had commanded attention when I said something. But now, trying to writesimple English,

Apart from what any critic had to say about my writing, I knew I had succeeded where it counted when mymother finished reading my book and gave me her verdict: "So easy to read."

I later decided I should envision a reader for the stories Iwould write. And the reader I decided upon was my mother, because these were stories about mothers.

Why are there few Asian Americans enrolled in creative writing programs? Why do so manyChinese students go into engineering! Well, these are broad sociological questions I can't begin to answer.But I have noticed in surveys -- in fact, just last week -- that Asian students, as a whole, always dosignificantly better on math achievement tests than in English. And this makes me think that there are otherAsian-American students whose English spoken in the home might also be described as "broken" or"limited." And perhaps they also have teachers who are steering them away from writing and into math andscience, which is what happened to me

Math is precise; there is only one correct answer. Whereas, for me at least, theanswers on English tests were always a judgment call, a matter of opinion and personal experience.

hey had lost the CAT scan and she had come for nothing. Shesaid they did not seem to have any sympathy when she told them she was anxious to know the exactdiagnosis, since her husband and son had both died of brain tumors. She said they would not give her anymore information until the next time and she would have to make another appointment for that. So she saidshe would not leave until the doctor called her daughter. She wouldn't budge. And when the doctor finallycalled her daughter, me, who spoke in perfect English -- lo and behold -- we had assurances the CAT scanwould be found, promises that a conference call on Monday would be held, and apologies for any sufferingmy mother had gone through for a most regrettable mistake

Like others, I havedescribed it to people as 'broken" or "fractured" English. But I wince when I say that. It has alwaysbothered me that I can think of no way to describe it other than "broken," as if it were damaged and neededto be fixed, as if it lacked a certain wholeness and soundness.

Yet some ofmy friends tell me they understand 50 percent of what my mother says. Some say they understand 80 to 90percent. Some say they understand none of it, as if she were speaking pure Chinese. But to me, my mother'sEnglish is perfectly clear, perfectly natural. It's my mother tongue. Her language, as I hear it, is vivid,direct, full of observation and imagery. That was the language that helped shape the way I saw things,expressed things, made sense of the world.

I had learned in school and through books, the forms ofEnglish I did not use at home with my mother.Just last week, I was walking down the street with my mother, and I again found myself conscious of theEnglish I was using, the English I do use with her. We were talking about the price of new and usedfurniture and I heard myself saying this: "Not waste money that way." My husband was with us as well, andhe didn't notice any switch in my English. And then I realized why. It's because over the twenty years we'vebeen together I've often used that same kind of English with him, and sometimes he even uses it with me. Ithas become our language of intimacy, a different sort of English that relates to family talk, the language Igrew up with.

I am a writer. And by that definition, I am someone who has always loved language. I am fascinated bylanguage in daily life. I spend a great deal of my time thinking about the power of language -- the way itcan evoke an emotion, a visual image, a complex idea, or a simple truth. Language is the tool of my trade.And I use them all -- all the Englishes I grew up with.

I am not a scholar of English or literature.