Consultative Assembly elected in equal moieties by Members of the two Assemblies

shall be chosen from amongst the well-informed, discerning, pious and respected persons of the Realm. Thirty of them shall be nominated on the part of His Imperial Majesty (fifteen of the people of Tihran, and fifteen of the people of the Provinces), and thirty by the Nation

Art. 38.

New laws which are needed shall be drafted and revised in the Ministries which are respectively responsible, and shall then be laid before the Assembly by the responsible Ministers, or by the Prime Minister. After being approved by the Assembly, and ratified by the Royal Signature; they shall be duly put into force.

shall admit his negligence and lack of attention, he shall, according to the Law, be personally responsible to His Imperial and Most Sacred Majesty.

with the exception of treaties which, for reasons of State and the public advantage, must be kept secret.

The National Consultative Assembly has the right in all questions to propose any measure which it regards as conducive to well-being of the Government and the People, after due discussion and deliberation thereof in all sincerity and truth; and, having due regard to the majority of votes, to submit such measure, in complete confidence and security, after it has received the approval of the Senate, by means of the First Minister of the State, so that may receive the Royal Approval and be duly carried out.

IRAN'S 1906 CONSTITUTION

Newspapers may print and publish all the debates of the Assembly, provided they do not change or pervert their meaning, so that the public may be informed of the subjects of discussion and the detail of what takes place

any punishment inflicted upon him must be with the cognizance of the Assembly

take God to witness, and swear on the Qur’an, that,

re-electing

who [thus] participate in the economic and political affairs of the country.

this book would, with an explosion, destroy all the other books in the world.

ynonymous expressions each of which could be substituted for the above definition, and by enumerating them I want to produce the same sort of effect which Galton produced when he took a number of photos of different faces on the same photographic plate in order to get the picture of the typical features they all had in common.

nstead, after a fiery speech in St. Louis in March 1919, in which he accused white soldiers of racism and cowardice, Johnson disappeared from the public sphere.

“He’d become, to his own race, a symbol of black manhood, but to whites, he was expected to be a voice for racial harmony.”

We would rather face the Germans to come over the top than to have their shells.”

One Hundred Years Ago, the Harlem Hellfighters Bravely Led the U.S. Into WWI Their courage made headlines across the country, hailing the African-American regiment as heroes even as they faced discrimination at home <img src="https://thumbs-prod.si-cdn.com/dm6tCgdsm2yZH-wpopfnSEKYA08=/800x600/filters:no_upscale()/https://public-media.si-cdn.com/filer/a2/02/a202b692-24e1-46f3-9f8e-5778030d6e10/untitled-1.jpg" alt="Members of the 369th [African American] Infantry" itemprop="image"> Members of the 369th [African American] Infantry (National Archives Catalog) By Erick Trickey smithsonianmag.com May 14, 2018 Private Henry Johnson of Albany, New York, held tight his French Lebel rifle and stared into the darkness of no-man’s-land, listening for German raiders. Beyond the parapet, he could make out shapes and shadows under the waning moon. Johnson was a 25-year-old railroad baggage porter, the son of North Carolina tobacco farmers. Under French command, he manned the front line of the Great War about 115 miles east of Paris on the early morning of May 15, 1918. He heard a sound and turned to his partner in their tiny observation post, Needham Roberts, who gestured toward the direction of the noise. They heard it again: the snip of barbed wire being cut. Johnson fired an illumination rocket into the sky, then ducked as German grenades flew toward him. The grenades exploded behind him, and pain struck his left leg and side. Roberts, bleeding from his head, threw grenades of his own back over the parapet. The German forces rushed into the Americans’ dugout. Johnson shot one German in the chest, point-blank, then swung his rifle to club another. Two enemy soldiers tried to haul Roberts away, until Johnson drove his nine-inch knife into one of their skulls. Another German shot Johnson in the shoulder and thigh; Johnson lunged with his knife and slashed him down. The enemy soldiers ran. Johnson chucked grenades as they fled. Reviewing the carnage the next day, a U.S. Army captain estimated that Johnson had killed four of at least 24 German soldiers. Days later, Johnson and Roberts became the first Americans to receive the French Croix de Guerre – the first of many honors awarded to the 369th Infantry Regiment, better known as the Harlem Hellfighters. The Hellfighters, the most celebrated African-American regiment in World War I, confronted racism even as they trained for war, helped bring jazz to France, then battled Germany longer than almost any other American doughboys. (Their nickname’s origin is unclear: it was possibly coined by enemy soldiers, the American press, or both.) Like their predecessors in the Civil War and successors in the wars that followed, these African-American troops fought a war for a country that refused them basic rights – and their bravery stood as a rebuke to racism, a moral claim to first-class citizenship. They were mostly New Yorkers, the first black troops in their state’s National Guard. After years of lobbying by civic leaders from Harlem, Manhattan’s celebrated black neighborhood, Governor Charles Whitman finally formed the all-black unit, first known as the 15th New York National Guard Regiment, in 1916, as the U.S. prepared for possible entry into World War I. The majority of the enlistees actually came from Harlem, which was home to 50,000 of Manhattan’s 60,000 African-Americans in the 1910s. Others came from Brooklyn, towns up the Hudson River, and New Jersey, Connecticut, and Pennsylvania. Some were teens, some in their mid-40s. Some were porters, doormen, or elevator operators, some teachers, night watchmen or mailmen. Their motives included adventure, patriotism and pride. “To be somebody you had to belong to the 15th Infantry,” wrote enlistee Arthur P. Davis of Harlem. Whitman named his former campaign manager, William Hayward, a white attorney and former Nebraska National Guard colonel, as commander. Hayward hired a mix of white officers, to please the governor, and black officers, to build support for the regiment in Harlem. Hayward told white officer candidates to “meet men according to their rank as soldiers,” and warned that if they “intended to take a narrower attitude, [they] had better stay out.” In the years to come, he would repeatedly advocate for fair treatment for his regiment within the Army. Hayward also recruited African-American bandleader James Reese Europe to form a first-rate marching band for parades, recruitment and fundraisers. Europe, a classically trained violinist and ragtime performer, enlisted as a lieutenant and convinced top Harlem musicians to join. Even before combat, the regiment faced unjust challenges from fellow Americans. In October 1917, six months after the official U.S. entrance into the war, they trained for combat in Jim Crow-ruled Spartanburg, South Carolina. There, the regiment pledged to follow an unusual military discipline: Hayward asked them to respond to racist insults and threats with “fortitude and without retaliation,” but to report any incidents to military authorities. “There had been all kind of insults hurled at our body who were on duty in town,” wrote musician Noble Sissle in his memoir. “Our boys had some pretty bitter pills to swallow.” Sissle himself was kicked and called a racial slur by a hotel’s proprietor when he stopped in to get some newspapers. A hundred black and white soldiers gathered at the hotel’s entrance, “bent on seeking restitution,” Sissle wrote, but Lieutenant Europe’s calm intervention defused the confrontation until military police arrived. “He really showed his mettle and ability to handle men in that very unpleasant episode,” Sissle recalled. “As a direct result of such repeated confrontations (not despite them),” wrote Peter N. Nelson in A More Unbending Battle, a history of the Hellfighters, “a bond was forged among the men of the 15th, a fighting spirit they hoped would serve them well when they got to France.” The 2,000 troops arrived in Brest, France, on the first day of 1918. On the docks, they surprised French soldiers and civilians with a jazz rendition of “La Marseillaise.” “As the band played eight or ten bars, there came over [the French people’s] faces an astonished look, quickly alert, snap-into-it-attention, and salute by every French soldier and sailor present,” wrote Sissle in his memoir. Though some Parisians had heard American jazz music before, the syncopated beats were likely new to Brest, a port town in Brittany. Renamed the U.S. 369th Infantry Regiment, they were assigned to the U.S. Army’s Services of Supply, unloading ships and cleaning latrines, a typical assignment for African-American soldiers at the time. But General John Pershing, commander of the American Expeditionary Forces in Europe, soon offered the 369th to the French army to solve a political problem. The French and British were demanding American reinforcements for their badly depleted divisions. Pershing, under orders from President Woodrow Wilson, had insisted on forming an independent American force in France, to preserve troop morale and accountability for American casualties and to strengthen Wilson’s clout in eventual peace talks. Henry Johnson, left, and Neadham Roberts, right, were members of the 369th Regiment Infantry. (National Archives Catalog) New York's famous 369th regiment arrives home from France (National Archives Catalog) Unidentified African American recruits for the 15th New York National Guard Regiment heading to Camp Upton (Library of Congress) Yet Pershing made an exception for the black soldiers of the 369th, reassigning them to the French on March 10.

“a bond was forged among the men of the 15th, a fighting spirit they hoped would serve them well when they got to France.”

all-black unit

He thought of jewelled hilts

That's why; and maybe, too, to please his Meg, Aye, that was it, to please the giddy jilts,

Poured it down shell-holes till the veins ran dry, And half his lifetime lapsed in the hot race 

When glow-lamps budded in the light-blue trees, And girls glanced lovelier as the air grew dim,— In the old times, before he threw away his knees.

had mothered them from him.

Base Details

scarlet Majors

bald, and short of breath,

keeps falling over and over again into the same ditch.

And while he aims for the greatest possible freedom from pain, the intuitive man, standing in the midst of a culture, already reaps from his intuition a harvest of continually inflowing illumination, cheer, and redemption—in addition to obtaining a defense against misfortune.

"If a workman were sure to dream for twelve straight hours every night that he was king," said Pascal, "I believe that he would be just as happy as a king who dreamt for twelve hours every night that he was a workman."

Indeed, it is only by means of the rigid and regular web of concepts that the waking man clearly sees that he is awake; and it is precisely because of this that he sometimes thinks that he must be dreaming when this web of concepts is torn by art.

meaning for men it would have if it were the sole necessary image

whereas the bee builds with wax that he gathers from nature, man builds with the far more delicate conceptual material which he first has to manufacture from himself.

webs: delicate enough to be carried along by the waves, strong enough not to be blown apart by every wind.

Here one may certainly admire man as a mighty genius of construction, who succeeds in piling an infinitely complicated dome of concepts upon an unstable foundation, and, as it were, on running water.

But in this conceptual crap game "truth" means using every die in the designated manner, counting its spots accurately, fashioning the right categories, and never violating the order of caste and class rank

privileges, subordinations, and clearly marked boundaries—a new world, one which now confronts that other vivid world of first impressions as more solid, more universal, better known, and more human than the immediately perceived world, and thus as the regulative and imperative world. Whereas each perceptual metaphor is individual and without equals and is therefore able to

First he universalizes all these impressions into less colorful, cooler concepts, so that he can entrust the guidance of his life and conduct to them.

From the sense that one is obliged to designate

What, then, is truth? A mobile army of metaphors, metonyms, and anthropomorphisms—in short, a sum of human relations which have been enhanced, transposed, and embellished poetically and rhetorically, and which after long use seem firm, canonical, and obligatory to a people:

Every concept originates through our equating what is unequal.

He abuses the fixed conventions by arbitrary changes or even by reversals of the names. When he does this in a self-serving way damaging to others, then society will no longer trust him but exclude him.

vanity is so much the rule and the law that almost nothing is more incomprehensible than how an honest and pure urge for truth could make its appearance among men.

immediately be blown up like a bag by a slight breath of this power of knowledge;

But if we could communicate with the mosquito, then we would learn that he floats through the air with the same self-importance, feeling within itself the flying center of the world.

f the world is a system, only God can know it! It follows, therefore, that people cannot presume that they occupy a specific place in a known scheme of things. One must act, rather, from day to day, as best one can, always unsure of the consequences.

He defined "existence"as a unique attribute of human beings. They alone exist "outside" nature, possessing the power to think about the universe and to choose what they will believe and how they will act.

Society, Freud wrote in Civilization and Its Discontents (1930), compels individuals to repress many of their "natural" desires. In a highly organized civilization, these repressions take a heavy toll from the individual; yet without some repression civilization would be impossible. The "normal" person accepts the damage without breaking down, but the neurotic (or psychotic) person cannot do so. The Freudian view of the individual in relationship to society posed a sharp challenge to traditional morals, religion, and politics. All those had rested on a base of supposed rationality and conscious control. According to the new view, those traditions were not geared to psychological reality and might therefore be dangerously false. Freud believed that human personality would suffer even under "enlightened" social codes of behavior, because there exists an inescapable conflict between personal drives and the social order. Hence, "perfectionist" social dreams can never be fulfilled, and the goal of complete individual happiness is a tormenting mirage.REJECTION OF TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS AND VALUES: NIETZSCHE, KIERKEGAARD, SARTRE Friedrich Nietzsche, a German philosopher who died in 1900, lived in Freud's time and shared many of his views on human nature. And the impact of both men was most strongly felt in the twentiethcentury. Nietzsche's influence was perhaps wider than Freud's, for he challenged not only the traditional view of human nature but the entire institutional and ideological heritage of the West. When he said, "God is dead," he meant not only the God of the Judeo-Christian faith but the whole range of philosophic absolutes, from Plato down to his own day. Because all Western values had been linked to those ultimate "eternal" values, they crashed to earth with "God's death." Facing the void alone, thought Nietzsche, people value but one goal: power. Thus would he explain the ceaseless drive for power by individuals and nations. Nietzsche's most revealing work is his most poetic, Thus Spake Zarathustra (1884). In it he allowed his unconscious self to speak freely, without regard to logical organization. The book is a flowing stream of images, symbols, and visions, some of which have not yet been fully understood. In Zarathustra and other works, notably Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche considered the various conditions of human beings and their relation to the universe. He was one of the first thinkers to stress the absurdity of human existence: the inability of our reason to comprehend our surroundings—though we are born to try. All existing systems, whether based on reason or revelation, appeared false Nietzsche.

He was one of the first thinkers to stress the absurdity of human existence: the inability of our reason to comprehend our surroundings—though we are born to try.

Nietzsche's influence was perhaps wider than Freud's

Freud believed that human personality would suffer even under "enlightened" social codes of behavior, because there exists an inescapable conflict between personal drives and the social order. Hence, "perfectionist" social dreams can never be fulfilled, and the goal of complete individual happiness is a tormenting mirage

Freud held that human beings are not rational machines, consciously directing their appetites and will. On the contrary, reason plays a relatively minor and subordinate role in most people, for the conscious life and its expression are but a covering of the "real" person. Beneath the surface are unconscious and subconscious drives, which are the chief engines of motivation; these include the desire for sexual gratification, love, power, and even death. In addition, behavior is influenced by physiological responses and acquired attitudes.

disillusioned Westerners turned, or returned, to traditional Christian doctrines. The crimes and horrors of world wars and revolutions heightened their awareness of “evil" and man's "sinful nature"; and their quest for truth beyond the findings of science led them to the centuries-old intellectual system of Christian theology.

gave up efforts to explain objective “reality.” They generally agreed that no such explanation is possible. The two most influential schools of philosophy in the twentieth century were those of the "linguistic analysts" and the "existentialists."

Instead, they scrutinize those individuals who did not follow the paths of their average fellow countryman, thus making them their focal point. In microhistory the term “normal exception” is used to penetrate the importance of this perspective, meaning that each and every one of us do not show our full hand of cards.

microhistorians argued that they are more likely to reveal the complicated function of individual relationships within each and every social setting and they stressed its difference from larger norms.

on the grounds that they distorted reality on the individual level.

social scientists have made generalizations that do not hold up when tested against the concrete reality of the small-scale life they claim to explain.”

he distinction between “intellectual history” and “the history of ideas.”

Platonist