Exactly how this network controls the strength of visual imagery remains unknown

esearch suggests that neural activity spanning prefrontal, parietal, temporal, and visual areas supports the generation of mental images.

studies have demonstrated that physical and observational training can elicit neuroplastic adaptations in the cortical representation of movement.

Motor imagery training can induce training-dependent cortical plasticity.

we show greater activity/connectivity centered on the default mode network during such automated decision-making under predictable environmental demands.

Imagery of emotional events can activate the autonomic nervous system and amygdala in a similar way to perception of the same events, leading to physiological changes. For example, imagining threatening events can increase heart rate, skin conductance and breathing rate.

Auditory and motor imagery also draw on cortical areas involved in auditory perception and motor control, respectively.

Visual mental imagery seems to use the same two pathways (ventral or object processing, and dorsal or spatial processing) as perception.

have shown that mental imagery makes use of much the same neural substrates as perception in the same sensory modality.

Our investigations of three patients with cortical blindness provide strong evidence that primary visual cortices are not essential for the mediation of visual images recalled from memory.

The proposition that primary visual cortex is necessary for visual imagery predicts that a cortically blind subject's inability to perceive visual stimuli would be accompanied by an inability to image visually.

Summing up it could be proposed that imagination represents the ability by the human subjects of creating novel “mental objects” that are shaped by their own peculiar inner world2

The distinctive feature of imagination, therefore, rests on its capacity of creating new mental images by combining and modifying stored perceptual information in novel ways and by inserting this information in a subjective view of the world:

a capability that appears to be especially developed in humans.

Despite the two terms sharing obviously many semantic features, imagination usually indicates the faculty of creating mental images and constructs of a novel character,

As far as imagery is concerned it is proposed that neural structures originally implicated in performing certain functions, e.g., motor actions, can be reused for the imagery of the virtual execution of that function.

Voluntary saccades in light or dark and imagined saccades led to a significant activation (p < 0.005) of the precentral and posterior medial frontal gyrus (frontal eye field).

In conclusion, basic activation and deactivation patterns of real locomotion correspond to that of imagined locomotion.

This cerebral network is believed to modulate locomotion (e.g., gait initiation, termination, velocity, direction, and spatial orientation

During real and imagined locomotion a basic locomotion network including activations in the frontal cortex, cerebellum, pontomesencephalic tegmentum, parahippocampal, fusiform and occipital gyri, and deactivations in the multisensory vestibular cortices (esp. superior temporal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule) was shown. As

The authors conclude that the inferior and orbitofrontal cortices play an important role in normal emotional cognitive processes.

Women showed bilateral inferior and orbitofrontal activation, but men displayed predominantly left-sided activation in these areas.

CBF measured during the control condition and during the active condition, particularly in the inferior and orbitofrontal cortices

The authors explored the question of whether acute, transient changes in mood are reflected in activation of discrete neuronal systems in the human brain.

Ingvar summarized evidence which indicated that regions within the prefrontal cortex have a crucial role in the planning, foresight and programming of complex action sequences — examples of “memory for the future”

NMDA receptor function is necessary for the encoding of many types of memory, as well as for the induction of synaptic plasticity

It is clear that memory and synaptic plasticity have many properties in common

Hebb proposed that neuronal assemblies linked by adaptable synaptic connections could encode informational content in the brain

Ramón y Cajal originally proposed that the strengthening of synaptic connections of existing neurons might be a mechanism of memory storage

Much is now known about brain structures, neural circuits, and molecules involved in memory encoding and consolidation

Rodent behavioral studies have since established that the hippocampus is a central brain region for contextual memory storage and retrieval

The medial temporal lobe (MTL), in particular the hippocampus, was implicated in memory of events or episodes by neurological studies of human clinical patients, where its direct electrophysiological stimulation evoked the recall of untargeted episodic memories

The results suggest that two independent mechanisms are responsible for long‐lasting potentiation: (a) an increase in the efficiency of synaptic transmission at the perforant path synapses; (b) an increase in the excitability of the granule cell population.

All three parameters were potentiated in 29% of the experiments; in other experiments in which long term changes occurred, potentiation was confined to one or two of the three parameters. A reduction in the latency of the population spike was the commonest sign of potentiation, occurring in 57% of all experiments. The amplitude of the population e.p.s.p. was increased in 43%, and of the population spike in 40%, of all experiments.

racted from databases. This review concluded that among the electroencephalographic components examined, only sensorimotor rhythm demonstrated a consistent and causal relationship with superior precision motor performance, whereas findings related to the left temporal alpha and frontal theta and alpha rhythms were not consistent and lacked the evidence needed to draw a causal inference for a role in superior precision motor performance

This means that certain physical measurements may lead to greater social physique anxiety and body image dissatisfaction in female athletes.

Under red light (vs. white and blue), participants demonstrated a greater iMVC level.

By using sophisticated yet simple and unobtrusive technologies such as wireless psychophysiology monitoring, for example, or "smart fabrics" that enable unobtrusive body torso monitoring during live competition, it may be possible to determine which specific negative emotions are evoked within an athlete during the performance cycle and which positive emotions provide the quickest relief from stress.

Previous studies showed that skilled archers displayed highly consistency in the EMG of some muscle groups during the time between shots

eurofeedback training has been utilised to enhance performance from three main areas; sport, cognitive and artistic performance.

This information provides a plausible rationale for the use of neurofeedback to train individuals to enhance their performance.

In conclusion, acute and chronic physical activity interventions might be a promising way to improve several cognitive outcomes and language skills in adolescents and young adults.

Phoenix et al. (1959) reported that treating pregnant guinea pigs with testosterone had enduring effects on the sex-related behavior of their female offspring.

In both sexes, the contrast suffering-minus-happy humans revealed a difference in the activation of the occipito/temporal, right occipital (BA19), bilateral parahippocampal, left dorsal prefrontal cortex (DPFC) and left amygdala

Recent findings have demonstrated that women might be more reactive than men to viewing painful stimuli (vicarious response to pain), and therefore more empathic [Han, S., Fan, Y., & Mao, L. (2008).

The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of metacognitive therapy (MCT), pharmacotherapy and neurofeedback treatment in treating Iranian patients with GAD.

Participants, when received the EEG-MUSE neuro-feedback intervention, obtained higher game score (358 ± 28) as compared to the control (344 ± 23). However, the difference was not significant (p > 0.05).

Less desynchronized brain activity at the left hemisphere predicts world rank points and flow-experience in expert table tennis players

Elite expert table tennis players show stronger cortico-cortical communication between right-temporal and premotor areas compared to amateurs

Sensorimotor rhythm (SMR) activity has been related to automaticity during skilled action execution

We showed that positive reinforcement was more effective in encouraging players to keep their brain activity regulated.

Optimal performance in athletes can be achieved by creating the correct balance of psychological and physiological states and hence it is desired to be able to purposely achieve these states before competition.

ue to individual differences in brain activity, as well as the large diversity of skills required in different sports, neurofeedback for performance training is not a “one size fits all” approach (Wilson, Thompson, Thompson, & Peper, 2011).

The combination of cognitive, emotional, and psychophysiological benefits from neurofeedback results in improved performance.

The benefits of neurofeedback have also been found useful in peak performance training. These benefits include improving attention/concentration, imagery, arousal level, and decreasing worry and rumination (Williams, 2006).

Findings revealed that there was a significant correlation between the athletes’ overall self-regulation ability and their ranking at the world level

It is understood that in order for athletes to perform to their potential consistently they must learn to optimally self-regulate their psychological and physiological states.

As a result, Bonferroni’s follow-up test was used to determine the difference between the groups. Accordingly, the neurofeedback group had better performance than both groups of illustration (P=0.042) and control (P=0.026), while the illustration group had no significant difference with the control group (P=0.00).

Findings suggest that placebos and nocebos result in activity of the opioid, endocannabinoid and dopamine neurotransmitter systems, brain regions including the motor cortex and striatum, and measureable effects on the autonomic nervous system.

A strong correlation (r = −0.68) was found indicating longer sleep durations during competition were associated with higher final tournament positions

The top 2 placed teams when compared with the lower 2 placed teams slept longer (8:02 ± 36:43; 7:01 ± 27:33), had greater time in bed (9:03 ± 0:52; 7:59 ± 0:54) and reported enhanced subjective sleep ratings

The results showed that HRV was significantly positively correlated with self-efficacy and performance and was a significant predictor of shooting performance.

Adiposity and SES are negatively associated in high-income countries and positively associated in medium to low-income countries.

. There were significantly lower cortisol levels and skin conductance levels in the experimental compared to the control group at the end of the training programme

This kind of wearable devices can be used to report the physiological and psychological state of the athletes and this information can be used for achieve better results in perfor- mance and improve the weakness.

The findings of this well-controlled study strongly indicate that the effects of NFT are smaller than what can be inferred from published studies

NFT did not lead to modifications in the trained frequency bands and was not able to improve attention or RT performance.

The subjects improved eye-hand-leg coordination

esults The differences between the first and second measurement indicate that the male and female handball players subject to the analysis improved their general attention level.

The demands of competitive sport also increase loading on the central nervous system (CNS).

Although being applied for more than 45 years, biofeedback may still be considered by some to be “high-technology” therapy that may be used to (1) engender a relaxation response, thus treating the stress response itself, or (2) alter target-organ activity, thus treating the symptoms of excessive stress arousal.

It was shown that the training based on biofeedback computer game allows modifying self-regulation strategies of the subjects towards more effective ones.

A large body of research has shown that self-regulation is an important aspect underlying athletes’ well-being and performance

DLPFC is related to improving the performance of unskilled snipers in a target shooting task.

The application of tDCS to the right DLPFC affects performance on a target shooting task.

The more deterministic resting state electrocortical dynamics for the high‐risk group may reflect maladaptive neural behavior—excessively stable deterministic patterning that makes transitioning among functional task‐specific networks more difficult—related to attentional control and sensorimotor processing neural regions.

Results revealed that high‐risk participants showed more deterministic electrocortical behavior than the low‐risk group in the frontal theta and central/parietal alpha‐2 frequency bands

at least in part because there has been a mismatch between lab tasks and real sporting activity.

By contrast, progress in characterizing the neural correlates of sporting behavior is clear:

We aim to contribute to this next step by designing innovative training procedures dedicated to the enhancement of athletes’ cognitive abilities.

This result suggests that it may be possible to design innovative ecological training procedures for goalkeepers, for instance using a combination of NF and cognitive tasks performed in virtual reality.

Having a connection to home through social media can make athletes feel relaxed in a high-pressure environment.

The study assessed a sample of 57 athletes and their social media use across 20 international major sport events. Findings revealed that social media enabled athletes to communicate with family and friends.

there is still not enough robustness to be a valid protocol for safe replication.

Despite the nonathletes group’s increased standard alpha band (SAB) relative amplitude and individual alpha band (IAB) relative amplitude after 12 sessions of neurofeedback training (p < .005), only the athletes intervention group had positive results in reaction time (p < .001 in oddball test).

The method included pretraining and 15 individual biofeedback sessions lasting 30 min each, with two sessions per week, which progressively trained interoception and sympathovagal balance control and reinforced cognitive and physiological stress control.

Neuroplus, which progressively combines multiple types of autonomic biofeedback with cognitive and physiological stressors.

The analysis showed a significant enhancement of physiological adaptability, recovery following stress, visual selective attention, and injury prevention that were specific to the Neuroplus group.

ased on previous research associating autonomic flexibility with prefrontal cortical control, we designed a novel integrated autonomic biofeedback training method called Neuroplus to improve resilience, visual attention, and injury prevention.

However, executive functions, visuospatial abilities, and psychophysiological adaptability or resilience are also fundamental for efficiency and well‐being in sports.

Performance and injury prevention in elite soccer players are typically investigated from physical‐tactical, biomechanical, and metabolic perspectives.

Paul and Garg (2012) displayed increased dribbling, shooting, and passing after HRV BFB compared to a PLA.

An interesting finding in this review is the increased attendance of athletes in training with HRV BFB. Rusciano et al. (2017) recorded an ~86% presence in training and ~4% absent rate out of 240 training sessions in soccer players in HRV BFB training.

However, the exact mechanism affecting performance from improvement in vagal function is unknown

HRV BFB may have facilitated the production of neurotransmitters responsible for improving fine and gross motor function

The vagal nerve is connected to the anterior cingulate cortex, the brain region that plays a crucial role for multi-component behaviour

HRV BFB increases activation of the vagal nerve

In another light, the fine motor ability of athletes after HRV BFB and a CON displayed conflicting results. Paul et al. (2012) observed improved choice reaction time after HRV BFB. Conversely, no significant enhancement in movement reaction time existed between the HRV BFB and the CON group.

HRV BFB may have reduced physiological stress of athletes from increased blood flow to internal organs, elevated minimum left ventricular elastance, baroreflex sensitivity gain, and improved pulmonary function

Better performance exhibited by athletes following HRV BFB suggests the positive influence of HRV BFB on longer duration gross motor ability

In the study of Choudhary et al. (2016), 5-km performance of athletes in the HRV BFB and the CON group was not significantly different.

In this study, short duration (“ 10 minutes) gross motor tasks after HRV BFB delivered conflicting results. For example, Paul and Garg (2012) showed improved shooting and passing performance in basketball players after HRV BFB compared to a CON. However, non-significant difference in dribbling was seen after HRV BFB and a CON.

In addition, the effect of HRV BFB on gross motor function during exercise of longer duration is unclear.

When compared to a control condition (CON) that involved regular training only, HRV BFB displayed contrasting effects on the gross motor skills during short duration performance.

Paul and Garg (2012) discovered a significantly higher dribbling score in the HRV BFB group than a PLA at p = 0.04, 0.99[0.70, 1.92]. Passing also significantly improved in the HRV BFB group compared with a PLA at p = 0.01, 1.38[1.07, 2.36]. The HRV BFB group significantly increased shooting performance compared to a PLA, p = 0.00, 1.63[1.31, 2.64].

In dance, artistry and technique were similar in both the HRV BFB and the PLA group (Gruzelier et al., 2014).

Rusciano et al. (2017) found significantly reduced absence from sport training sessions compared with a CON at p = 0.00, 1.51[1.20, 2.50].

Rusciano et al. (2017) detected significant improvement in visual tracking scores with a target absent stimulus among soccer athletes after HRV BFB compared to a CON at p = 0.00, -1.72[-2.05, -0.70]. However, visual tracking with a target present stimulus did not significantly improve after HRV BFB compared to a CON at p = 0.31; ES = -0.47[-0.75, 0.42]. Furthermore, soccer players after HRV BFB significantly increased accuracy under congruent stimuli at p = 0.00, 2.64[2.26, 3.84] compared to a CON. Similarly, the HRV BFB group showed significantly higher accuracy following incongruent stimuli compared to a CON at p = 0.00, 2.94[2.54, 4.20].

In fine motor ability, Paul et al. (2012) found no significant reduction in movement time seen after HRV BFB and a CON at p = 0.05, -0.95[1.24, -0.02]. On the other hand, there was significantly shorter choice reaction time found after HRV BFB compared to a CON at p = 0.01, - 1.23[-1.53, -0.27].

Raymond et al. (2005) observed non-significant difference in performance scores of dancers at p = 0.40, 0.55[-0.06, 1.77]. No significant difference in practice-corrected difference scores at p = 0.31, 0.66[0.04, 1.89] was also found.

Gruzelier et al. (2014) found that university dancers exhibited non-significant outcomes in artistry and technique between HRV BFB and CON groups.

In exercise of longer duration, Choudhary et al. (2016) reported no significant improvement in gross motor skill movement via 5-km performance between the HRV BFB group and a CON at p = 0.16, ES[95% CL] = -0.60[-0.84, 0.22].

demonstrated non-significant difference in dribbling between the HRV BFB and the CON group at p = 0.06, ES[95% CL] = 0.89[0.60, 1.18]. On the other hand, the HRV BFB group presented significant enhancement in passing and shooting

Of the six studies included, all studies compared HRV BFB and a control condition (CON) wherein a CON involved regular dance/sport training. Three studies also compared HRV BFB and a placebo (PLA) with two studies using motivational video (Paul and Garg, 2012; Paul et al., 2012) and one using choreology (Gruzelier et al., 2014).

A recent review conducted by Jiménez Morgan and Molina-Mora (2017) synthesized the effect of HRV BFB on athletic performance and found that 86% (n = 6) of studies reviewed performance enhancement via improvement in psychophysiological variables.

In an athletic setting, the first documented HRV BFB intervention was administered on wrestlers who exhibited reduced muscle relaxation disorders and an improved rate of relaxation

HRV BFB is executed by paced breathing at a specific frequency, known as resonance frequency (RF), that elicits maximal heart rate oscillations.

BFB provides real-time understandable physiological information to an individual that enhances psychophysiological and affective indices

NFB is a technique also used to achieve success in professional sports

Implementation of advanced sport technologies such as motor imagery, biofeedback, and exercising in artificial environments can facilitate and reinforce training transfer from appropriate motor tasks to targeted athletic performance.

may produce a shift toward more automated processing

As athletes become more skilled, these processes may mediate the reduction in widespread activity in regions mapping executive control,

found that the movements activated the medial-wall motor regions in all the participants

For example, when people practice a novel hand motor skill, the central motor representation in the hand section of the primary motor cortex (executive locus of voluntary motor control: M1) expands when they repeat the practice for days or weeks

It is well-established that motor practice induces plastic changes in the human central motor system even in adults.

Neymar may efficiently control given foot movements probably by largely conserving motor-cortical neural resources.

Inhibiting high Beta (20–30 Hz) and concomitantly increasing SMR (13–15 Hz) at C3 and C4 sites led to better performance in rifle shooting in an experimental group compared to a control grou

for example, even age-matched participants have been found to show significant variability in Alpha frequency

NFT interventions to improve sports performances should not solely rely on findings from other fields of application because of differences between the athletic population and the clinical or even general population

revious studies (Hatfield et al., 1984, Salazar et al., 1990) had shown that good execution in archery was associated with activation in the brain’s right hemisphere, which is associated with visual-spatial processing, and, at the same time, decreased activation in the left temporal lobe. This decrease in activation in left temporal areas and specifically in verbal-analytic areas was associated with reduction of attention to stimuli and suppression of irrelevant information.

The EEG signal is composed of different frequencies that may be organized into different frequency bands. Each band is thought to reflect different brain states and may be associated with different behavior and behavioral outcome (performance). Now, the idea of neurofeedback is to teach individuals to regulate brain activity within a frequency band to enhance the associated mental state or behavior.

Since the appearance of EEG, research has attempted to identify relations between electrical brain activity and frequency bands on the one side and mental states on the other.

EEG signals are formed through ionic flow from large groups of dendrites due to synaptic transmission, and the alternation between excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in these synapses produce the familiar oscillatory signal in the EEG

Activity of the brain can be measured through different signals, for example, blood flow, oxygen consumption, or electrical activity, and each signal may be used for feedback.

whereas a person usually cannot intentionally modify autonomic functions, individuals are able to regulate these biological functions once they have greater access to detailed information about their signals

Moreover, Enriquez-Geppert et al. (2013) have shown that larger gray matter volumes in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex are related to stronger theta-NFB effects in healthy young participants.

Larger gray matter volumes have been associated with learning performance in many different contexts

Along with functional changes, gray matter volumes are an indicator of the potential of the brain to undergo neuroplasticity

Specifically, the attention of recent mental training approaches aimed at promoting optimal performance has increasingly focused on internal processes, emotions and bodily sensations awareness, acceptance and self-control

More information canbe better if you know what you are paying attention to. Ifyou do not, more information can induce anxiety andproduce unintended negative consequences. H

Individuals with 8 Hz are not so inundated withinformation that they might feel overwhelmed, which canhappen to a 12 Hz athlete under competitive stress.

He suggests that performers who have ahigher magnitude of alpha at 8 Hz are typified by moredifficulty practicing with intensity across time, but theyperform well under stressful competitive conditions

The lattergroup tend to report a greater problem in staying focused/motivated in long or dull practice settings. J. Gunkleman(personal communication, September 27, 2016) also sug-gests that individuals with low alpha dominance (e.g., 8 Hz)may be different from those who are 12 Hz dominant andthat they should be tuned rather than merely trained toenhance alpha

Clinically, we have noted from paper-and-pencil mea-sures that athletes who have increased amplitude in thelower alpha frequencies reported less anxiety/stress

In some cases, thetraining was recommended to continue until a norm wasobtained. Interestingly, no norm for athletes for any of themodalities was ever published (to our knowledge), and thepublished norms were generally based on clients withpathologies and a comparative healthy population, clinicalrecommendations, or practitioners’ best guesses

Takashi’ nin, müzisyenlerde müzik algısını araştırdığı çalışmasında ise müzisyen olanlar ve olmayanlar arasında farklı beyin kürelerinin baskın oldukları ortaya konmuştur. Müzisyen olan dinleyicilerde pasifmüzik dinleme esnasında sol baskın aktivasyonlar görülürken

y-providing immediate and tangible feedback in regulating breathing, HRV biofeedback treatment can assist participants to learn how to regulate their breathing in order to decrease their anxiety by reducing the time spent in incorrect practice of breathing exercises.

to practice with this biofeedback device for 5–10 minutes at least 3 times per day.

A sensor was attached to participants’ ear lobe in order to measure their pulse, a

Although progressive muscle relaxation may directly target sympathetic arousal, heart rate variability biofeedback (HRVB) plays a more direct role in autonomic modulation

but experiencing an intrinsic motivation towards the activity.

not expecting external rewards

The experience becomes enjoyable and rewarding as we gain a sense of control over what we are doing.

Attention is fully invested in the task at hand and the person functions at her or his fullest capacity”

Flow has been found to be the most important source of rock-climbers’ enjoyment

may provide a strong motivation for continued participation in adventure recreation

The biofeedback device, Nexus 10

8-week period

three sessions (∼50 min each)

Biotrace + Software

Nexus 10 hardware

Findings demonstrated that BF reduced anxiety, with the effect size for the BF condition nearly double that of the EX condition (Pre to Post15: BF d=-.39, EX d=-.21).

Nexus 10

This included 18 individuals, of whom 4 were female and 14 male.

Slovenian top athletes between 16 and 34 years of age.

The aim of our study was to determine exactly how effective biofeedback training is for learning psychophysiological control over the autonomic nervous system, following the completion of an 8-week-long biofeedback training program

but little is known about the flow experience in younger samples and whether predictions of flow and multidimensional anxiety theory affect teenage athletes in a similar way.

Mionix Naos QG

hat the attempt to control for respiration (either directly or statistically)could modify natural heart rate variability.

a detailed descriptionshould be provided on analysis methods,

EMG and GSR

EEG is more suitable

Research on the efficacy of NF training has shown a positive effect, specifically in aiming tasks such as archery, shooting, and golf

Significant components of BFB training for improving performance are the volume, length of treatment (session × time), BFB modalities, and a combination of BFB training with other techniques

Leonard Zaichkowsky (1975) was the first researcher to use BFB technology to learn about athletes’ self-regulation.

Following intensive BFB training, psychological skills become automatic reflexes.

The main idea of BFB is to provide the individual with information about his or her body’s or mind’s reactions to various situations (Schwartz, 1979).

. This principle states that every change in the physiological state is accompanied by a parallel change in the mental and emotional states

At the same time, the possibility of integrating psychological support into training and competition as part of the athlete’s preparation has been suggested in recent scientific research and psychological practice (Beauchamp, Harvey, & Beauchamp, 2012; Blumenstein & Orbach, 2012a,b; Blumenstein, Lidor, & Tenenbaum, 2007; Holliday et al., 2008).

six sessions (i.e., 120 min of treatment)

3-week, 6-session

67 depressed male patients

Fluctuations in the respiratory rate are directly correlated with those in the heart rate