The situation of poor whites was similar to that of slaves in that there was no major, overt opposition to the existing order. However, just as slaves feigned illness, broke tools, or worked at a slow pace, poor whites also resisted affluent whites in similar ways.

“I understand an historical phenomenon, unifying a number of disparate and seemingly unconnected events, both in the raw material of experience and in consciousness.” Viewing class not as a thing, but instead as a relationship, Thompson claimed that in “the years between 1780–1832 most English working people came to feel an identity of interests as between themselves, and as against their rulers and employers.” This feeling, of course, formed the basis of class consciousness, which Thompson defined as “the way in which these experiences are handled in cultural terms: embodied in traditions, value-systems, ideas, and institutional forms.

To fully establish whether or not poor whites harbored class consciousness, two terms deserve more careful definitions

it is necessary to note that many of the “aspirational poor whites” of whom he speaks were actually younger sons from families of wealth and property. Just beginning their professional lives, they had yet to accumulate wealth or inheritance

He further held that the “savage ideal” of white supremacy kept poor whites from allying with blacks

I contend that scholars can safely assume that by 1860, at least one-third of the Deep South’s white population consisted of the truly, cyclically poor.

In no instance … did the lowest quartile of farming families own more than 1 per cent of the land.” However, the top quartile in every sample region laid claim to between two-thirds and three-quarters of land wealth.

Southern land varied so much in value that it had been known to sell for as little as a quarter an acre on one extreme, and as much as $100 an acre on the other. Most non-slaveholders and small-holders owned the least desirable plots.

As Charles Bolton and others have found, the vast majority of Southerners from all classes historically had worked as farmers, farm laborers, and tenants

Owsley concluded that by 1860, 80 to 85 percent of the “agricultural population”

Both abolitionists and free-labor supporters frequently referred to the “poor, deluded, ignorant masses” of southern whites, but southern politicians and intellectuals were loath to respond.

“It is worthy of remark that in their denunciations of the populace, the rabble, those who work with their hands, they refer not to complexion, but to condition; not to slaves, but to the poor and laborious of their own color.

William, the second son of John Jay, was an abolitionist lawyer who appealed to non-slaveholding southern whites in 1849.

Because slavery’s association with agricultural and manual labor “rendered toil ignoble in the estimation of the whites,” poor white laborers adopted “a willful, determined indolence, which actually became the badge and ensign of their independence.

whose ranks were rapidly increasing in southern cities due to immigration

t first acquaintance, a Christian is an enigma[puzzle] to them, never being seen to engage in prayer

on his goods lestthey be stolen, or ejaculate a curse on his apprentice, or tell a passing customer towait a little while and he will attend to him.

All places are regarded as suitable for prayer.

The muezzin may be an educated mullah5 or an ignorant man. A wealthyneighbor had the call given from his housetop by an illiterate scavenger or porter,who had simply memorized the Arabic words, and was paid for his trouble withsome loads of wheat.

assisting Armenian Christian refugees fleeing from Turkeyduring what has come to be known as the Armenian genocide.

Wilson became fluent in Armenian and AzeriTurkish, the primary languages spoken in Tabriz and its surroundings. Ascholar and intellectual,

Theological Seminary in Allegheny, PA, and completing a graduate course atPrinceton in 1880, Wilson began work in Persia.

“Is that all?” replied the Persian. “Of course I’ll apologize; I’ll say whateverhe wishes me to say. I lied when I called him a liar. I am a liar, the son of a liar,and the grandson of liars. What more does he want me to say?”

I therefore sent the saddle back to him with amessage that I did not need instructions as to what kind of a present I should give,and that he ought to be thankful that I had remembered him at all.

despotic government.

requires a good figure to show it off to advantage. The scant garmentsworn indoors admit of considerable scope in the exercise of taste for color andembroidery, but otherwise there is no difference in the home-dress worn by thePersian women of Teheran either in the palace or the meanest hovel.

which is the quarter ofthe residence devoted to the women.

country knows little or sees less

while by strongly asserting his claim toall the privileges which he has the right to demand, suitable to his rank, he receivesthe respect which is his due, but which no Persian will give except when he seeshim firm on these points

will be very careful that his host does not occupy it instead, and quiteas careful not to accept it if inferior in rank, although urged, for to do so under suchcircumstances would be to affront the host, and invite an affront in retur

let him considerthat it is scarce two centuries since Nadir returned from the sack of Delhi,

he ocean is entirely of turquoise, andPersia is represented by a compact mosaic of diamonds.

not wholly the fictions of a fancy steeped in opium or b’hang

he Alhambra

one of the mostimposing halls in the world

served as the first United States ambassador to Persia,establishing the Legation in Teheran in 1883 and heading it until 1885

“Here,” said the Nagib, addressing the katib, “take thy wife and lead her away,for she is thine truly.Then, turning to his guards and pointing to the fellah, he said, “Give this manfifty blows of a courbash [hippopotamus hide whip] on the soles of his feet.”The katib walked off with his wife, and the guards gave the fellah fifty blowsof a courbash on the soles of his feet.Next came the fruiterer and the butter merchant in their turn.“Here,” said the Nagib to the fruiterer, “here is thy money; verily didst thoutake it from thine own purse, and never did it belong to him by whom thou artaccused.”Then, turning to his guards and pointing to the butter merchant, he said, “Givethis man fifty blows of a courbash on the soles of his feet.”

extract of cantharides,9 in powder, to the amount of eight or ten grains, warninghim against taking it except in very small doses

He asked for what these Orientals are ever seeking,

I know that Europeans are singularly versed in such knowledge,” rejoined he

Until then I had always looked upon the tales related to us in the ArabianNights as mere fictions; but on witnessing the delivery of these two judgments, Ifelt convinced that some of them at least were founded on facts. Of course they areworked up into romances, but they have a basis of reality

And now, byMohammed, our great Prophet, I swear that this man lies in saying that I havestolen his money, for that money is truly mine.”

theNagib ordered a chibouque [long Turkish tobacco pipe] to be brought, which helighted and presented to me with his own hands

The truth of these assertions is highlydebatable.

blows might be given to the attendant as his share,according to agreeme

O Prince of the Faithful! the third is enough for me, givehim the two thirds!” This restored the caliph’s good temper, and, laughing heartily,he rewarded them both.4 bastinado: a form of torture that involves caning (beating with a cane) the bare soles of aperson’s feet.

“If you do not make melaugh, I will beat you three times with this leathern bag,”

Haroun al Rashed2

interpreter-in-chief to the British forces

Sinai Peninsula andNegeb deser

these officials portrayed resistance to colonialrule as proof of the irrationality and barbarism of peoples who were incapable ofunderstanding what was in their own best interest.

Rulers were represented aseffeminate, sensual and cruel; subjects were depicted as oppressed and docile.They also characterized the societies of the “East” as existing in a timeless, staticcondition—i.e., outside of history and modernity. Nineteenth-century Westernerstended to cast their mission, therefore, as a positive one in which they werecivilizing, modernizing,

given expression in literature, art, travel writings,politics, and supposedly scholarly treatises

During the European Renaissance of the 14th through the 17th centuries,western, European soldiers, traders, and missionaries began to venture into Asia

o

old t

rzimmerman@saddleback.edu

Protection shall be given to life and property; and every man shall enjoy,henceforth, his just rights, without fear of molestation.

If any officer of the Durbar — Jageerdar,9 Zemindar,10 or other person — shallrefuse to render such obedience, if he shall withhold the payment of revenue, orshall otherwise dispute or defy the authority of the British Government, he shallbe declared a rebel, his person shall be seized, and his jageers or lands shall beconfiscated to the State.To those who shall, immediately and quietly, submit themselves to theauthority of the British Government [i.e., the BEIC], whether Amils or publicofficers, Jageerdars, Zemindars, or other inhabitants of Oude, full assurance ishereby given of protection, consideration, and favour

or it must put forth its own greatpower on behalf of a people for whose happiness it, more than fifty years ago,engaged to interpose, and must at once assume to itself the exclusive andpermanent administration of the territories of Oude.

But his Majesty the King refused to enter into the amicable agreement whichwas offered for his acceptance.

which its position under the treaty servesindirectly to sustain, or continue to the sovereign that protection which aloneupholds the power whereby such evils are inflicted

The powers of government throughout his dominions are for the most partabandoned to worthless favourites of the court, or to violent and corrupt men, unfitfor their duties and unworthy of trust.The collectors of the revenue hold sway over their districts with uncontrolledauthority, extorting the utmost payment from the people, without reference to pastor present engagements.The king’s troops, with rare exceptions undisciplined and disorganized, anddefrauded of their pay by those to whom it is entrusted, are permitted to plunderthe villages for their own support, so that they have become a lasting scourge tothe country they are employed to protect.

Bentinck refused orders from theHome Office of the British government in 1831 and again in 1833 to annex Oude.

the people of Oude are still the victims of incompetency,corruption, and tyranny

ameliorate the condition of the peopleof Oude had been thwarted or evaded

power and authority of a royalrace who, whatever their faults towards their own subjects, have ever been faithfuland true to their friendship with the English nation.

The obligations which the treatyimposed upon the Honourable East India Company have been observed by it formore than half a century, faithfully, constantly, and completely

the purported despotism, corruption and misrule

MirJafar, as Nawab of Bengal

the wholesome white faces of Havelock’s good fusileers,

Havelock’s glorious Highlanders answer with conquering cheers

Cholera, scurvy, and fever, the wound that would not be healed,Lopping away of the limb by the pitiful—pitiless knife,— 85Torture and trouble in vain,—for it never could save us a life.Valour of delicate women who tended the hospital bed,Horror of women in travail19 among the dying and dead,Grief for our perishing children, and never a moment for grief

Had they been bold enough then, who can tell but the traitors had won?

Strong with the strength of the race to command, to obey, to endure

the dark pioneer

And ever upon the topmost roof our banner of England blew.

that we held with our lives

ritten more than twenty years afterthe events it depicts by a writer who had never been to India, Tennyson’s

French Rococo aesthetic.

it had a profound effect on French architecture and decorative arts of the period, as evidenced in the dominance of Egyptian motifs in the Empire style.

This approach appealed particularly to British artists, as the explicitness of detail encouraged in the Orientalist style upheld the Protestant necessity for iconographic clarity and fidelity to nature in religious art.

Some of the most popular Orientalist genre scenes—and the ones most influential in shaping Western aesthetics—depict harems.

their principles corrupted at their very setting out, and as they generally go a goodmany together, they inflame one another’s expectations to such a degree, in thecourse of the voyage, that they fix upon a period for their return before their arriva

he must be seduced at last, or fly. Now theBanyan is the fair lady to the Company’s servant. He lays his bags of silver beforehim today; Gold tomorrow; Jewels the next day, and, if these fail, he then temptshim in the way of his profession, which is Trade.

hese policies included its insistence thatIndians plant commercial crops such as indigo, jute, and opium poppies inplace of rice and other food crops; its monopoly on trade; its seizure of landfrom hereditary landowners; and its extraction from the Indians of high taxes

the Commander-in-Chief of BritishIndia from 1756-1760, and Governor and Commander-in-Chief from 1764-1767

Behold that vile English nation!

Let us all rise, arm, unite, andgo against them. We do here bind ourselves to vengeance, and express these oursincere intentions in order to exhibit our high principles and patriotism. The godsfrom on high now look down on us; let us not lose our just and firm resolution.China from 1796-1820.4 Chusan (today Zhoushan) was a port city in eastern China. In 1793, Macartney’sdelegation asked for and was denied permission to trade there. The British also asked to begiven a small island near Chusan to establish warehouses and residences. This request alsowas denied.

They aredogs, whose desires can never be satisfied

delegation asked for and was denied permission to trade there. The British also asked to begiven a small island near Chusan to establish warehouses and residences.

steadily devoured all the western barbarians

China was forced to pay Britain a $21million indemnity, representing the value of the destroyed opium andBritain’s costs of winning the war. The island of Hong Kong was ceded to theBritish, and a total of five port cities were forced to open their doors to Britishtrade. Canton, which had long been the sole center of China’s import-exporttrade with Europe, was now designated one of these “treaty ports.”

Be sure not to put this off. Theabove is what has to be communicated

certainly you will not letyour subjects dare again to violate the law

Naturally you wouldnot wish to give unto others what you yourself do not want

This is the source fromwhich your country has become known for its wealth

have always been noted for their politeness andsubmissivenes

his is because he takes the mind of heaven andearth as his mind.

Lin Zixü

enowned for his competencein administering fiscal matters and public works, and his skill at governance.

That is to say, that there is in him, like the rest of us, both good and bad, andthat the innate good is capable of being developed by culture.7 Henry Wadsworth Longfellow from “The Song of Hiawatha,” an 1855 epic poem basedon Native American oral traditions. The poem is set in Michigan and concerns the fictionalNative American character Hiawatha, an Ojibwe warrior, and his tragic love forMinnehaha, a Dakota woman.

He is neither theintelligent ideal crying out for instruction, and capable of appreciating the subtlebeauties of Christian forbearance and self-sacrifice, which some well-meaningmissionary literature would lead us to suppose; nor yet, on the other hand, is heuniversally a rampant cannibal, predestined by Providence to the yoke of the slave,and fitted for nothing better,

“turn the other cheek also to the smiter,” and to be “theservant of all men,” is to wholly misunderstand and misapply the teaching ofChrist.

repel an insolentfamiliarity, which is a thing entirely apart from friendship born of respect andaffection.

for no one is more quick to recognise a real gentlemanthan the African savage

In my view, moreover, instruction (religious or secular) is largely wasted uponadults, who are wedded to custom and prejudice. It is the rising generation whoshould be educated to a higher plane, by the establishment of schools for children

greatercomforts in his social life.

him to purchase from the trader thecloth [to wear as clothing] which shall add to his decency

But even the less advanced andmore primitive tribes may be equally benefited,

Aleading architect of colonial administrative policy, Lugard developed thesystem of Indirect Rule, whereby British colonial officials ruled through (andso hid behind) indigenous political leaders who were responsible for collectingtaxes from their people, supplying laborers when instructed, and maintaininglaw and order in their territories.

As a result of this battle Menelik gained enormous local and international prestige. OnOctober 26, the Italians agreed to the Peace Treaty of Addis Ababa, whereby they acceptedthe annulment of the Treaty of Ucciali and recognized the absolute and completeindependence of Ethiopia. Menelik, on the other hand, did not consider himself in positionto insist on an Italian withdrawal from Eritrea though he had often expressed a desire ofobtaining access to the sea. In the months which followed, the French and Britishgovernments sent diplomatic missions to sign treaties of friendship with Menelik; othermissions came from the Sudanese Mahdists, the Sultan of the Ottoman Empire; and theTsar of Russia. Addis Ababa thus emerged as a regular diplomatic center where severalimportant foreign powers had legations [ministers and their staff].

r nearly 43 percent of the original fightingforce of 10,596 Italian and about 7,100 [African] troops. The Italians also abandoned alltheir cannon, as well as about 11,000 out of the 14,519 rifles with which they started thebattle

The Ethiopian army moreover was much larger than that of the Italians. Not countingsoldiers with spears, he had well over 100,000 men with modern rifles. The Italians fortheir part had somewhat more cannon—56 as against Menelik’s 40—but only about17,000 men, of whom 10,596 were Italian and the rest Eritrean levies [draftees orconscripts

After a delay of over two years, which he turned to good advantage by importing verylarge quantities of fire-arms especially from France and Russia, Menelik at lengthdenounced the Treaty of Ucciali on February 12, 1893; a week or so later, on February 27,he informed the European Powers of his decision, declaring: “Ethiopia has need of no one;she stretches out-her hands unto God.

I said that because of our friendship, our affairs in Europe might be carriedon with the aid of the sovereign of Italy, but I have not made any treaty which obliges meto do so. I am not the man to employ the aid of another to carry on my affairs your Majestyunderstands very well.

The Italian text, however, made it obligatory for theEmperor to conduct all his transactions with the other powers through the Italiangovernment. Though the Italian formula was soon used by the Italian government to claimthat it had established a protectorate over Ethiopia, the time was not yet ripe for an openconflict.

To avoid disputes among themselves the European Powers had devised the GeneralAct of Berlin which was signed on February 26 that yea

Further sales and gifts followed with the result that Menelik soonhad by far the best equipped army of any independent African state

Menelik to bring this work to fruition, as well as to withstand the pressureof the European powers in the scramble for Africa, and to lay the foundations of a modernstate.

The powers of the monarchs had been usurpedby the feudal lords and centralized government had been replaced by the autonomy of thevarious provinces whose rulers warred among themselves

looted in 1868 from Ethiopia by British troops and housed today in the BritishMuseum and the British Library.

What good man would prefer a country covered with forests and ranged by a fewthousand savages to our extensive Republic, studded with cities, towns, andprosperous farms embellished with all the improvements which art can devise orindustry execute, occupied by more than 12,000,000 happy people, and filled withall the blessings of liberty, civilization and religion?

How many thousands of ourown people would gladly embrace the opportunity of removing to the West onsuch conditions! If the offers made to the Indians were extended to them, theywould be hailed with gratitude and joy.

none more zealouslythan those who think the Indians [are] oppressed by subjection to the laws

Our children by thousands yearly leave the land of their birth to seek newhomes in distant regions. Does Humanity weep at these painful separations fromeverything, animate and inanimate, with which the young heart has becomeentwined?

to send them to land where their existence may be prolonged and perhaps madeperpetual.

no one can indulge a more friendlyfeeling than myself,

we have as little right to control them as we have to prescribelaws to foreign nations

free them from the power of the States, enable them to pursue happiness intheir own way and under their own rude institutions; will retard the progress ofdecay, which is lessening their numbers, and perhaps cause them gradually, underthe protection of the Government and through the influence of good counsels, tocast off their savage habits and become an interesting, civilized, and Christiancommunity

to advance rapidly in population, wealth, andpowe

to the settlement of the whitesit will incalculably strengthen the southwestern frontier and render the adjacentStates strong enough to repel future invasions without remote aid

benevolent policy

The wealthiest established plantations and even purchasedenslaved African Americans to work them.

He againsaw action against Native Americans in Georgia and Florida in 1817, duringthe First Seminole War

patriarchal family structures, and African slavery in an attempt topeacefully coexist with the whites

Agreeing not to fight each other

homesteading,” “settling,” and“westward expansion,” in reality it was one of imperial conquest andconsolidation

Indeed, an anti-imperialist movement within the US was very active inthe late 19th century;

On the heels of thisrebellion, the British government decided to take direct control of India in 1858,making Queen Victoria Empress of India. This, however, did not improveconditions for the Indian people.

Forty years later, however, power hadshifted to Britain, whose possession of Industrial Revolution technology andweaponry enabled the British to easily defeat the Chinese in the first of two“Opium Wars,” and impose their will on that country, forcing the Chinese tocontinue to allow the importation of opium—grown in Britain’s colony ofIndia—into China.

What divisions in Cherokee society are alluded to in the first petition?

Our beloved Children and head men of the Cherokee Nation, we address youwarriors in council. We have raised all of you on the land which we now have,which God gave us to inhabit and raise provisions

Although it is not commonfor our sex to take part in public measures, we nevertheless feel justified inexpressing our sentiments on any subject where our interest is as much at stake asany other part of the community

be brought to a savage state again, for we have,by the endeavor of our Father the President, become too much enlightened to throwaside the privileges of a civilized life

he land was given to us by the Great Spirit above as our commonright, to raise our children upon, & to make support for our rising generations. Wetherefore humbly petition our beloved children, the head men & warriors, to holdout to the last in support of our common rights, as the Cherokee nation have beenthe first settlers of this land; we therefore claim the right of the soi

Cultivate and raise corn & cotton and your mothers andsisters will make clothing for you which our father the president has recommendedto us all

for it was the good will of our creator to place us here,and you know our father, the great president,3 will not allow his white children totake our country away

In 1835, a smallunauthorized faction of Cherokee men ignored the above resolutions andsigned the Treaty of New Echota, ceding the Cherokee lands in the southeastfor new territory in what today is the state of Oklahoma.

In 1830, the United States Congress passed the Indian Removal Act,

men who engaged in commercial farming orpurchased enslaved Africans to do that work for them constituted the kernelof an emerging elite clas

God-speed on her mission of “testifyin’ agin concerning the wickedness of this’ere people.”

But to go to nations with whom there is no war, who have no way provoked,without farther design of conquest, purely to catch inoffensive people like wildbeasts for slaves, is an height of outrage against Humanity and Justice, that seemsleft by Heathen nations to be practised by pretended Christians

debauched them withliquors,

willfully sacrificeConscience, and the character of integrity to that golden Ido

and commonly some of usused to get up a tree to look out for any assailant, or kidnapper, that might comeupon us; for they sometimes took those opportunities of our parents’ absence, toattack and carry off as many as they could seize

having slightlyreprimanded me, ordered me to be taken care of, and not to be ill-treated

even to the wretchedness of slavery.

while it has no advantage to atone for it,

O, ye nominalChristians! Might not an African ask you: learned you this from your God?

This produced copious perspirations, so thatthe air soon became unfit for respiration, from a variety of loathsome smells, andbrought on a sickness amongst the slaves, of which many died, thus fallingvictims to the improvident avarice [extravagant greed], as I may call it, of theirpurchasers

he white people looked and acted, as Ithought, in so savage a manner, for I had never seen among any people suchinstances of brutal cruelty; and this not only shown towards us blacks, but also tosome of the whites themselves. One white man in particular I saw, when we werepermitted to be on deck, [was whipped] so unmercifully with a large rope near theforemast, that he died in consequence of it; and they tossed him over the side asthey would have done a brute.

, lest we should leap into the water: and I haveseen some of these poor African prisoners most severely cut for attempting to doso, and hourly whipped for not eating.

As relations between the Powhatan and the English declined, Wahunsenacastopped allowing Pocahontas to go to the Jamestown fort. He no longer thoughtshe was safe among the English colonists.6 Pocahontas was growing up, she wasabout twelve years old. Soon she would be coming of age.

It is not until Smith’s“Generall Historie of Virginia,” published in 1624, that Pocahontas was creditedwith saving his life

No one tried to prevent Smith and his men from leaving in the morning.Instead, the Powhatan carried loads of corn to their ship for them. As before, whenSmith was made a werowance by Wahunsenaca a year prior to this encounter,Smith’s own writings do not correspond to his own fears and claims of being savedby Pocahontas.

Why do you take by force [that which] you may quickly have by love?

You callyourself a Christian, yet you leave us with no food for the winter!

When young people of thePowhatan nation reached puberty, they stopped cartwheeling.

the English were lazy

Wahunsenaca wasletting the whole English settlement come in to be a part of Powhatan society. Hewas giving them a place to stay east of Werowocomoco on the eastern shore,possibly at the mouth of the Pamunkey (York) River. Wahunsenaca thought thatwith the English ships and ammunition in that area, the Spanish would not comeinto their territory. ... He viewed the English at that time as having come in peace.They were welcome to stay as long as they wished. “Stay here, make your homehere

The Spanish threat influenced Wahunsenaca to both build alliances with theregional tribes, enlarging the Powhatan nation, and to make friends with theEnglish when they arrived in 1607. ... [W]hen the English arrived with weaponryequivalent to the Spanish, which the Powhatan did not have, Wahunsenaca desiredto have them as an allied tribe within the Powhatan nation

When he was in close proximity to the chief of the village, he would puthis pistol to the chief’s head, demanding a ransom of food in exchange for thechief’s release.

make them allies and part of the Powhatan nation.

Wahunsenaca was his personal name

why do you white people differ so much about it? Whynot all agree, as you can all read the book?

“obviously ... spectacularbiogeographical phenomenon going on right under their noses,” they “did notunderstand it,” Crosby says, and certainly did not take the trouble to write aboutit

A moderate Roman Catholic and advocate of religious andcultural toleration,

All this does not sound very ill, and thelast was not at all amiss, for they wear no breeches.8 Charles IX was ten years old in 1560 when he ascended to the throne of France. Heruled from 1560-1574.

to march at the head of them to war

manner of commodities, whilst, in the meantime, their halves were begging at theirdoors, lean and half-starved with hunger and poverty; and they thought it strangethat these necessitous halves were able to suffer so great an inequality andinjustice, and that they did not take the others by the throats, or set fire to theirhouses.

which it may be added, that their language is soft, of a pleasing accent, andsomething bordering upon the Greek termination

but moreover carefully brought up thechildren he had by her, and assisted them in the succession to their father’s crown.

that they only covet so much as their natural necessitiesrequire: all beyond that is superfluous to them

We may then call these people barbarous, inrespect to the rules of reason: but not in respect to ourselves, who in all sorts ofbarbarity exceed them.

seeing so clearlyinto their faults, we should be so blind to our own. I conceive there is morebarbarity in eating a man alive, than when he is dead; in tearing a body limb fromlimb by racks and torments, that is yet in perfect sense; in roasting it by degrees;in causing it to be bitten and worried by dogs and swine (as we have not only read,but lately seen, not amongst inveterate and mortal enemies, but among neighboursand fellow-citizens, and, which is worse, under colour of piety and religion), thanto roast and eat him after he is dead

hey thought those people of the other world (as being men who had sown theknowledge of a great many vices amongst their neighbours, and who were muchgreater masters in all sorts of mischief than they) did not exercise this sort ofrevenge without a meaning, and that it must needs be more painful than theirs, theybegan to leave their old way, and to follow this

but as a representation of anextreme revenge

but all their ethics are comprised in these two articles, resolution inwar, and affection to their wives

laxative to strangers

no agriculture, no metal, no use of corn or wine;

wherein there is no manner of traffic [trade], no knowledge ofletters, no science of numbers, no name of magistrate or political superiority; nouse of service, riches or poverty, no contracts,

countries abound without art or culture

As, indeed,we have no other level of truth and reason than the example and idea of theopinions and customs of the place wherein we live:

excepting, that every one gives thetitle of barbarism to everything that is not in use in his own country

This man that I had was a plain ignorant fellow, and therefore the more likely totell truth: for your better-bred sort of men are much more curious in theirobservation, ‘tis true, and discover a great deal more; but then they gloss upon it[polish it], and to give the greater weight to what they deliver, and allure yourbelief, they cannot forbear a little to alter the story; they never represent things toyou simply as they are, but rather as they appeared to them, or as they would havethem appear to you,

Jean-Jacques Rousseau later called “the noble savage,”

And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of divineProvidence, we mutually pledge to each other our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor.

e must, therefore, acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces ourSeparation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends.

Ourrepeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury.