Slavery, of course, continued in the United States until the North’s victory in the Civil War ended it. African Americans outside the South were not slaves but were still victims of racial prejudice.

white mobs attacked African Americans in several cities, with at least seven antiblack riots occurring in 1919 that left dozens dead.

however, we need to use effective transitions as a gateway from one main point to the next.

You only need to assess your supporting points to be sure they’re authoritative and directly relevant to the main points they should support.

each main point is a claim, followed by particular information that supports that claim so that the audience will perceive its validity.

Without an outline, your message is liable to lose logical integrity.

For this reason, it’s very important to provide your audience with background about the credentials of the authors you cite.

When selecting direct quotations, always ask yourself if the material could be paraphrased in a manner that would make it clearer for your audience. If the author wrote a sentence in a way that is just perfect, and you don’t want to tamper with it, then by all means directly quote the sentence.

A bibliography or reference page enables a reader or listener to find those sources after the fact, but you must also correctly cite those sources within the speech itself; otherwise, you are plagiarizing.

If you use an idea, a quotation, paraphrase, or summary, then credit the source. We can’t reiterate it enough: if it is not your idea, you need to tell your audience where the information came from. Giving credit is especially important when your speech includes a statistic, an original theory, or a fact that is not common knowledge.

The more complete your research strategy is from the very beginning, the more successful your research endeavors will be in the long run. Remember, not having adequate time to prepare is no excuse for plagiarism.

Primary research can be considered an active form of research because the researcher is actually conducting the research for the purpose of creating new knowledge.

Table 10.1 Transition Words Addition also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, following this, further, furthermore, in addition, in the same way, additionally, likewise, moreover, similarly Consequence accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently, therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore Generalizing as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually Exemplifying chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely, particularly, including, specifically, such as Illustration for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration, illustrated with, as an example, in this case Emphasis above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly Similarity comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with Exception aside from, barring, besides, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save Restatement in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently Contrast and Comparison contrast, by the same token, conversely, instead, likewise, on one hand, on the other hand, on the contrary, nevertheless, rather, similarly, yet, but, however, still, nevertheless, in contrast Sequence at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward, in conclusion, with this in mind Common Sequence Patterns first, second, third… generally, furthermore, finally in the first place, also, lastly in the first place, pursuing this further, finally to be sure, additionally, lastly in the first place, just in the same way, finally basically, similarly, as well Summarizing after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize, finally Diversion by the way, incidentally Direction here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distance Location above, behind, by, near, throughout, across, below, down, off, to the right, against, beneath, in back of, onto, under, along, beside, in front of, on top of, among, between, inside, outside, around, beyond, into, over

Comparison/Contrast Another method for organizing main points is the comparison/contrast speech pattern. While this pattern clearly lends itself easily to two main points, you can also create a third point by giving basic information about what is being compared and what is being contrasted. Let’s look at two examples; the first one will be a two-point example and the second a three-point example. Specific Purpose To inform a group of physicians about Drug X, a newer drug with similar applications to Drug Y Main Points I. Show how Drug X and Drug Y are similar. II. Show how Drug X and Drug Y differ. Specific Purpose To inform a group of physicians about Drug X, a newer drug with similar applications to Drug Y Main Points I. Explain the basic purpose and use of both Drug X and Drug Y. II. Show how Drug X and Drug Y are similar. III. Show how Drug X and Drug Y differ.

Specific Purpose To persuade a group of high school juniors to apply to attend Generic University Main Points I. Life in the dorms II. Life in the classroom III. Life on campus

Specific Purpose To inform a group of school administrators about the various open-source software packages that could be utilized in their school districts Main Point 1 School districts use software in their operations. Define educational software. List and describe the software commonly used by school districts. Main Point 2 What is open-source software? Define open-source software. Review the history of open-source software. Explain the advantages of using open-source software. Describe the value of open-source software. Explain the disadvantages of using open-source software. Describe some problems that have occurred with open-source software. Main Point 3 Name some specific open-source software packages that may be appropriate for these school administrators to consider. Review the software needs of my specific audience. Describe some educational open-source software packages. You may notice that in the preceding list, the number of subpoints under each of the three main points is a little disjointed or the topics don’t go together clearly. That’s all right. Remember that these are just general ideas at this point. It’s also important to remember that there is often more than one way to organize a speech. Some of these points could be left out and others developed more fully, depending on the purpose and audience. We’ll develop the preceding main points more fully in a moment.

Specific Purpose To inform a group of school administrators about the various open-source software packages that could be utilized in their school districts Brainstorming List of Points Define open-source software. Define educational software. List and describe the software commonly used by school districts. Explain the advantages of using open-source software. Explain the disadvantages of using open-source software. Review the history of open-source software. Describe the value of open-source software. Describe some educational open-source software packages. Review the software needs of my specific audience. Describe some problems that have occurred with open-source software.

Table 6.3 My Specific Purpose Is… General Purpose Audience Topic To inform my audience about the usefulness of scrapbooking to save a family’s memories. To persuade a group of kindergarten teachers to adopt a new disciplinary method for their classrooms. To entertain a group of executives by describing the lighter side of life in “cubicle-ville.” To inform community members about the newly proposed swimming pool plans that have been adopted. To persuade my peers in class to vote for me for class president. To entertain the guests attending my mother’s birthday party by telling a humorous story followed by a toast.

Inspirational speeches are based in emotion with the goal to motivate listeners to alter their lives in some significant way.

the speech and the purpose of the speech is determined by the context of the event and not by the desire to inform or persuade.

The after-dinner speech is a form of speaking where a speaker takes a serious speech topic (either informative or persuasive) and injects a level of humor into the speech to make it entertaining.

but its goal is primarily about the entertaining aspects of the speech and not focused on the informative or persuasive quality of the speech.

An entertaining speech can be either informative or persuasive at its root, but the context or theme of the speech requires speakers to think about the speech primarily in terms of audience enjoyment.

Dispositional beliefs, on the other hand, are beliefs that people have not actively engaged in; they are judgments based on related subjects, which people make when they encounter a proposition.

Core beliefs are beliefs that people have actively engaged in and created over the course of their lives

Value refers to an individual’s perception of the usefulness, importance, or worth of something.

An attitude is defined as an individual’s general predisposition toward something as being good or bad, right or wrong, negative or positive.

Manipulative persuasion, on the other hand, occurs when a speaker urges listeners to engage in a specific behavior or change a point of view by misleading them, often to fulfill an ulterior motive beyond the face value of the persuasive attempt. We call this form of persuasion manipulative because the speaker is not being honest about the real purpose for attempting to persuade the audience.

Pure persuasion occurs when a speaker urges listeners to engage in a specific behavior or change a point of view because the speaker truly believes that the change is in the best interest of the audience members.

A persuasive speech can be distinguished from an informative speech by the fact that it includes a call for action for the audience to make some change in their behavior or thinking.

This informative speech topic is probably the most difficult for novice public speakers because it requires walking a fine line between informing and persuading

There is a very specific set of steps that a bill must go through before it becomes a law, so there is a very clear process that could be explained to an audience. The how-to-do speech, on the other hand, is designed to help people come to an end result of some kind.

The fourth type of informative speech involves concepts, or “abstract and difficult ideas or theories”

The point is to make sure that an informative speech is talking about the event (who, what, when, where, and why) and not attempting to persuade people to pass judgment upon the event or its effects.

The first type of informative speech relates to objects, which can include how objects are designed, how they function, and what they mean.

The second type of informative speech focuses on people. People-based speeches tend to be biography-oriented.

Every year, millions of people attend some kind of knowledge sharing conference or convention in hopes of learning new information or skills that will help them in their personal or professional lives

Aristotle talked about three speech purposes: deliberative (political speech), forensic (courtroom speech), and epideictic (speech of praise or blame). Cicero also talked about three purposes: judicial (courtroom speech), deliberative (political speech), and demonstrative (ceremonial speech—similar to Aristotle’s epideictic). A little more recently, St. Augustine of Hippo also wrote about three specific speech purposes: to teach (provide people with information), to delight (entertain people or show people false ideas), and to sway (persuade people to a religious ideology). All these systems of identifying public speeches have been attempts at helping people determine the general purpose of their speech. A general purpose refers to the broad goal in creating and delivering a speech.

results manually, or set up an automated online survey through the free or subscription portals of sites like Survey Monkey and Zoomerang.

the perception that the speaker is honest, knowledgeable, and rightly motivated.

Scholars Samovar and McDaniel tell us that ethical language choices require four guidelines: Be accurate; present the facts accurately. Be aware of the emotional impact; make sure that you don’t manipulate feelings. Avoid hateful words; refrain from language that disparages or belittles people. Be sensitive to the audience; know how audience members prefer to be identified (e.g., Native American instead of Indian, women instead of girls, African American instead of black, disabled instead of crippled)

Speakers also need to be aware of language and nonverbal behaviors that state or imply a negative message about people based on their various membership groups.

All members of our audiences deserve to have the same sensitivity and the same respect extended to them as unique individuals. Respecting diversity is not merely a responsibility within public speaking; it should be a responsibility we strive to embrace in all our human interactions.

Be careful not to use jargon or “insider” language that will exclude listeners who aren’t “in the know.”

In each case, you should use audience analysis to consider how your audience will respond to you, your topic, and your message.

This can be as simple as establishing eye contact and thanking them for coming to hear your presentation