On the negative side, itseems a little unusual to demand such self-reflection, stray-ing close to introspective methodology. On the positive side,one can view this as the need to document design strategies,and who better to do this than the designers? By documentingwhat it is like to try to make learning happen from the point ofview of those who would foster learning, we may be edgingtoward a more usable, and hence more valid, form ofresearch

stochasticity

Ourconceptoffundsofknowledgeisinno-vative,webetieve,initsspecialrelevancetoteaching,andcontrastswiththemoregeneralterm“culture,”orwiththeconceptofa“culturesensitivecurriculum,”andwiththelatter’sreli-anceonfolkloricdisplays,suchasstorytelling,arts,crafts,anddanceperformance

the methods by which we evaluate how such computer-based tools are appropriated andtheir impact on learning, on the whole, do not take into consideration differential effects forgroups that differ by ethnicity, race, language use, or class. It is quite possible that the tremendousfunding being invested in the development of such computer-based tools in education may be sim-ply reinforcing current inequities in opportunities to learn, unintentionally widening the achieve-ment gap

This results of research portray a complex developmental landscape, with muchintertwining, which contrasts sharply with approaches to development that tend toisolate and highlight only individual developmental changes.

utility of focusing ongoal-directed activity as a means of understanding the intertwining of cultural, so-cial, and cognitive processes.

Studieshave shown that many students can do mathematics (i.e., they can apply formulasto get numerical answers) but may not understand the concepts behind the proce-dures they learn to apply. More than just knowledge of procedures and formulas,understanding also includes the concepts and mathematical relations that underliethose procedures

More recentwork in translanguaging (Canagarajah,2011b; Garcıa & Li,2014) has emerged as an influentialinstantiation of this resource orientation, asserting that languages are not stored in the mind asdistinct and separate entities, but are part of a single communicative repertoire that individualsstrategically access to communicate. From a pedagogical perspective, this understanding suggeststhat educators should aim to tap into a student’s full linguistic repertoire when teaching(through) a new language. Rather than driving an artificial wedge between an individual’s mul-tiple and varied linguistic resources, translingual pedagogies encourage active, improvizational,and strategic mixing of linguistic codes in classroom spaces.

Finally, the resultsof this studysuggest we should beutilizing the same technology tools for professional development that teachers are ableto use in their classrooms. In a recent report on teacher professional development in the United States, the National Staff Development Council(Darling-Hammond, Wei, Andree, Richardson, & Orphanos, 2009) urged educators to provide professional development in more current andauthenticways:“Itistimeforoureducationworkforcetoengageinlearningthewayotherprofessionalsdodcontinually,collaboratively,andonthe jobdto address common problems and crucial challenges where they work”

That is, these 45 teachersreported actually dropping“inconsequential”curricula from their current practices to make room for more student-centered lessons. In theErtmer et al. study (2001), teachers with constructivist beliefs tended to utilize a“blended”pedagogical approach (using traditionalandconstructivist practices), which allowed them to reconcile differences between theirespousedstudent-centered beliefs and theirenactedteacher-centered practices.

n the early to mid-2000s, access to technology resources began to increase (National Center for Education Statistics, 2006) effectivelyreducing, and in some cases even eliminating, thisfirst-order barrier.

al.,2008).Although a focus on universality might have value for creating broadlyapplicable designs, it also risks underplaying the profound role of culture inshaping people’s engagement with the world around them at a physical and sociallevel

oments of financial pressure in the game also led to strategic breakthroughs

We were especially interested in whether and howpractices of joint storybook reading would translate into computer program-ming activities.

However, aprevalent assumption (often based more on intuition than evidence) is thatphysicality in its own right can lead to improved learning experiences (Marshall,2007).

In spite of strong evidence from previous workand pilot studies that students are able to generate and explore solutions to com-plex problems, withholding cognitive support runs counter to the normal practiceof what teachers and students are used to. At least in the local context of ourwork, our experience has been that students are used to seeking assistance fromtheir teachers so much so that they do so even before sufficiently trying to solveproblems themselves. At the same time, teachers are just as used to providingassistance when it is asked for so much so that often opportunities for students togenerate and explore RSMs are missed—opportunities that, as we have argued,are critical for realizing PF.

e. This suggests that, when given an opportunity,students do have richconstructive resources(di

complex prob-lems that challenge but do not frustrate,

delay that structure up until the student reaches animpasse—a form of failure—and is subsequently unable to generate an adequateway forward

Further, by identifying and understanding how learners naturally transition between unproductive and productive states when tinkering, we can begin to investigate new ways to scaffold learners who are unable to make this transition on their own.

importance of making the work of others visible, even if participants do not share the same convergent

n the short-term, the ability to recognize when learners are engaged in productive versus unproductive perseverance is a critical element in supporting their effective tinkering

There-fore, the goal of design-based research is to lay open and problematize the com-pleted design and resultant implementation in a way that provides insight into thelocal dynamics. This involves not simply sharing the designed artifact, but provid-ing rich descriptions of context, guiding and emerging theory, design features ofthe intervention, and the impact of these features on participation and learning.

design-related fields of education have made less progress in designing learning environ-ments that sustainably disrupt historically shaped inequities and cultivate transformative agencyfrom within communities.

we require research into new pedagogical models that includethe effective elements of inquiry and knowledge communities, but are not aschallenging for instructors

n order to respond to recent calls for the transformation of teaching and learn-ing in schools

show that these activities increase students’ understanding of the physicaland chemicalproperties of simple and complex compound

multimodal assistance

As stu-dents engage in dialogue and negotiation in a knowl-edge-building discourse (Scardamalia & Bereiter, 1994), themore knowledgeable peers contribute byraising important is-sues, pointing to resources, and by providing clarifications.Lessknowledgeablemembersplayanimportantrolebybring-ing up questions and asking for clarifications

supportivescaffolding, reflectivescaffolding, and intrinsic scaffolding.

whiteboard

Manyconstructivistapproachesoftenemphasizeknowledgebuildingforitsown sake.

arguethatindividualsmustlearntoviewknowledgeas apersonalartifactthatcan beimprovedbyproduc-tivelyreflectingupontherelationsbetweenexistingtheoryand evi-dence.

the team saw that the value of technology lay not in what it could do on its own but in its integration with successful curriculum materials

Appropriately designed assessments can help teachers realize the needto rethink their teaching practices

automaticity

Stress on isolated parts can train students in a series ofroutines without educating them to understand an overall picture that willensure the development of integrated knowledge structures and informationabout conditions of applicability

Observation-Analysis Projects

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