Format of a Works Cited Entry Each Works Cited entry has 9 components. You may not use each component in the reference; however, they all form a function to help the reader find the source you have cited.  Note the punctuation after each element: Author. Title of Source. Title of Container, Other Contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location. Here is the standard order for these components (keep in mind that not every source will use all of these components): Author. Title. Title of container (self contained if book), Other contributors (translators or editors), Version (edition), Number (vol. and/or no.), Publisher, Publication Date, Location (pages, paragraphs URL or DOI). 2nd container’s title, Other contributors, Version, Number, Publisher, Publication date, Location, and Date of Access (if applicable). DOI means “digital object identifier.” It is a permanent URL for an article or document. Here are some of the standard sources you will use: Book (paper or electronic) Paper: Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Publisher, Publication Date. Adams, Douglas. The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy. Pan Macmillan, 2016. E-book: Add the term “Ebook” after the title.  Author Last Name, First Name. Title of Book. Ebook, Publisher, Publication Date. Bender, Aimee. The Particular Sadness of Lemon Cake. Ebook, Thorpe, 2011 Page on a Web Site Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Web Page.” Title of Web Site, Publication Date, URL. Date accessed. US Department of Commerce and National Oceanic and Atmospheric      Administration. “A Guide to Plastic in the Ocean.” NOAA’s National Ocean      Service, 20 Sept. 2018, oceanservice.noaa.gov/hazards/marinedebris/      plastics-in-the-ocean.html. Accessed 23 May 2020. Collings, Kat. “5 Colors That Look Truly Amazing with Brunette Hair.”  Who       What Wear, 20 Apr. 2020, www.whowhatwear.com/brunette-hair-       color. Accessed 23 May 2020. If no author: “Title of Web Page.” Title of Web Site, URL. Date Accessed. “New Mexico Friendly Perennials & Annuals.” Osuna Nursery,       osunanursery.com/new-mexico-friendly-perennials-annuals/. Accessed 23       May 2020. An Article in a Web Magazine Author Last Name, First Name. “Title of Article.” Title of Web Site, URL. Date accessed. Jurado, Joe. “Study Finds Supreme Court Almost Always Rules in Favor of Police       in Excessive Force Cases.” The Root, www.theroot.com/study-finds-supreme-       court-almost-always-rules-in-favor-1843610973. Accessed 23 May 2020. An Article from an Online Database There is usually a citation generator on the database site, so citing is often easy. The online database name (e.g. LexisNexis, ProQuest, JSTOR, ScienceDirect) is the container. Include the title of the database italicized before the DOI or URL. If a DOI is not provided, use the URL instead. Provide the date of access. Gomez, Norma J. “Patient Safety & Quality Care. Hand Washing Adherence — Is       That Really Our Goal?” Nephrology Nursing Journal, vol. 45, no. 4, July 2018,       pp. 393–394. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?       direct=true&db=a9h&AN=131366622&site=ehost-live&scope=site. Accessed       23 May 2020. Gutzwiller, Kevin J., and Wylie C. Barrow. “Bird-Landscape Relations in the Chihuahuan Desert: Coping with Uncertainties about Predictive Models.” Ecological Applications, vol. 11, no. 5, 2001, pp. 1517–1532. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/3060936. Accessed 23 May 2020. A YouTube Video When you document video and audio sources, you will follow the same basic guidelines for citing print sources in MLA style. If the author’s name is the same as the uploader, only cite the author once. If the author is different from the uploader, cite the author’s name before the title. If there is no author, begin the citation with the title. Author Last name, First Name. “Title of Video.” YouTube, uploaded by screen name, date uploaded, URL. Date accessed. Nat Geo Wild. “The Grasshopper Mouse is a Killer Howling Rodent.” YouTube,       uploaded by National Geographic Wild, 30 June 2019,       https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1K9mO5QzOIQ.       Accessed 23 May 2020.   “Many Too Small Boxes and Maru.” YouTube, uploaded by mugumogu, 11 November 2010, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2XID_W4neJo.Accessed 23 May 2020.  An Image (Including a Painting, Sculpture, or Photograph) Artist’s Last Name, First Name. Title of Art. Date of creation. Institution housing art, city, URL. Date accessed. De Goya, Jose y Lucientes. The Sleep of Reason Produces Monsters. 1799. Nelson-Atkins Museum of Art, Kansas City, MO, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Sleep_of_Reason_Produces_Monsters#/media/ File:Francisco_José_de_Goya_y_Lucientes_The_sleep_of_reason_prod uces_monsters_(No._43),_from_Los_Caprichos_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg. Accessed 23 May 2020. Citation Generators

Chapter 47: MLA Parenthetical or In-Text Citations About In-Text Citations In-text citations are used throughout your paper to credit your sources of information. In MLA style, the in-text citation in the body of the essay links to the Works Cited page at the end. This way, the reader will know which item in the Works Cited is the source of the information. The in-text citation is offset with parentheses, clearly calling attention to itself for the reader. The reference to the author or title is like a signal to the reader that information was incorporated from a separate source. It also provides the reader with information to then turn to the Works Cited section of the essay (at the end) where they can find the complete reference. If you follow MLA style and indicate your source both in your essay and in the Works Cited section, you will prevent the possibility of plagiarism. If you follow MLA guidelines, pay attention to detail, and clearly indicate your sources, then this approach to formatting and citation offers a proven way to demonstrate your respect for other authors and artists. The ninth edition of the MLA Style Guide states that your in-text, or parenthetical, citations should do the following: Clearly indicate the specific sources also referenced in the works cited Specifically identify the location of the information that you used Carefully create a clear and concise citation, always confirming its accuracy Check out the video below for more discussion of your in-text citations. MLA Style: In-Text Citations by Scribbr on Youtube Examples of In-Text Citations  Typically, MLA in-text citations include the author’s name and the page number. See examples of in-text citations in this sample paper:  Use of In-Text Citations

Determining Whether a Source is Relevant To weed through your stack of books and articles, skim their contents with your research questions and subtopics in mind. Table 32.1 “Tips for Skimming Books and Articles” explains how skimming can help you obtain a quick sense of what topics are covered. If a book or article is not especially relevant, put it aside. You can always come back to it later if you need to. Table 42.1 Tips for Skimming Books and Articles Tips for Skimming Books Tips for Skimming Articles 1. Read the dust jacket and table of contents for a broad overview of the topics covered. 1. Skim the introduction and conclusion for summary material. 2. Use the index to locate more specific topics and see how thoroughly they are covered. 2. Skim through subheadings and text features such as sidebars. 3. Flip through the book and look for subtitles or key terms that correspond to your research. 3. Look for keywords related to your topic. 4. Journal articles often begin with an abstract or summary of the contents. Read it to determine the article’s relevance to your research. Determining Whether a Source is Reliable All information sources are not created equally. Sources can vary greatly in terms of how carefully they are researched, written, edited, and reviewed for accuracy. Common sense will help you identify obviously questionable sources, such as tabloids that feature tales of alien abductions or personal websites with glaring typos. Sometimes, a source’s reliability—or lack of it—is not so obvious. Watch the following video and answer the questions to test your knowledge. Evaluating Sources for Credibility To evaluate your research sources, use critical thinking skills consciously and deliberately. You will consider criteria such as the type of source, its intended purpose and audience, the author’s (or authors’) qualifications, the publication’s reputation, any indications of bias or hidden agendas, how current the source is, and the overall quality of the writing, thinking, and design. Evaluating Types of Sources The different types of sources you will consult are written for distinct purposes and with different audiences in mind. This accounts for other differences, such as the following: How thoroughly the writers cover a given topic. How carefully the writers’ research and document facts. How editors review the work. What biases or agendas affect the content. A journal article written for an academic audience for the purpose of expanding scholarship in a given field will take an approach quite different from a magazine feature written to inform a general audience. Textbooks, hard news articles, and websites approach a subject from different angles as well. To some extent, the type of source provides clues about its overall depth and reliability. Table 32.2 “Source Rankings” ranks different source types. Table 32.2 Source Rankings Infographic on High Quality Sources, detailing three categories of sources: high quality, varied-quality, and questionable sources, with descriptions and examples for each type.

Reading Popular and Scholarly Periodicals When you search for periodicals, be sure to distinguish among different types. Mass-market publications, such as newspapers and popular magazines, differ from scholarly publications in their accessibility, audience, and purpose. Consult your instructor because they will often specify what resources you are required to use. Newspapers and magazines are written for a broader audience than scholarly journals. Their content is usually accessible and easy to read. Trade journals that target readers within a particular industry may presume the reader has background knowledge, but these publications are still reader-friendly for a broader audience. Their purpose is to inform and, often, to entertain or persuade readers as well. Scholarly or academic journals are written for a much smaller and more expert audience. The creators of these publications assume that most of their readers are already familiar with the main topic of the journal, which means the use of jargon is acceptable. The target audience is also highly educated. Informing is the primary purpose of a scholarly journal. While a journal article may advance an agenda or advocate a position, the content will still be presented in an objective style and formal tone. Entertaining readers with breezy comments and splashy graphics is not a priority. Because of these differences, scholarly journals are more challenging to read. That doesn’t mean you should avoid them. On the contrary, they can provide in-depth information unavailable elsewhere. Because knowledgeable experts carefully review the content before publication, scholarly journals are far more reliable than much of the information available in popular media. Seek out academic journals along with other resources. Just be prepared to spend a little more time processing the information.

Chapter 38: Developing Your Research Process The text Successful Writing stresses that when you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research. But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper. A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources. If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. Image of Mars captured by NASA/JPL/USGS, highlighting the planet’s distinctive reddish surface and geographical features. This image is in the public domain (CC 1.0). What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives, or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world. Adapted from “Chapter 11” of Successful Writing, 2012, used according to Creative Commons CC BY-SA 3.0 US No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. Boundless Writing explains that a research paper is an expanded essay that relies on existing discourse to analyze a perspective or construct an argument. Because a research paper includes an extensive information-gathering process in addition to the writing process, it is important to develop a research plan to ensure your final paper will accomplish its goals. As a researcher, you have countless resources at your disposal, and it can be difficult to sift through each source while looking for specific information. If you begin researching without a plan, you could find yourself wasting hours reading sources that will be of little or no help to your paper. To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin. Creating a Research Plan

The text Successful Writing stresses that when you perform research, you are essentially trying to solve a mystery—you want to know how something works or why something happened. In other words, you want to answer a question that you (and other people) have about the world. This is one of the most basic reasons for performing research. But the research process does not end when you have solved your mystery. Imagine what would happen if a detective collected enough evidence to solve a criminal case, but she never shared her solution with the authorities. Presenting what you have learned from research can be just as important as performing the research. Research results can be presented in a variety of ways, but one of the most popular—and effective—presentation forms is the research paper. A research paper presents an original thesis, or purpose statement, about a topic and develops that thesis with information gathered from a variety of sources. If you are curious about the possibility of life on Mars, for example, you might choose to research the topic. Image of Mars captured by NASA/JPL/USGS, highlighting the planet’s distinctive reddish surface and geographical features. This image is in the public domain (CC 1.0). What will you do, though, when your research is complete? You will need to put your thoughts together in a logical, coherent manner. You may want to use the facts you have learned to create a narrative or to support an argument. And you may want to show the results of your research to your friends, your teachers, or even the editors of magazines and journals. Writing a research paper is an ideal way to organize thoughts, craft narratives, or make arguments based on research, and share your newfound knowledge with the world. Adapted from “Chapter 11” of Successful Writing, 2012, used according to Creative Commons CC BY-SA 3.0 US No matter what field of study you are interested in, you will most likely be asked to write a research paper during your academic career. Boundless Writing explains that a research paper is an expanded essay that relies on existing discourse to analyze a perspective or construct an argument. Because a research paper includes an extensive information-gathering process in addition to the writing process, it is important to develop a research plan to ensure your final paper will accomplish its goals. As a researcher, you have countless resources at your disposal, and it can be difficult to sift through each source while looking for specific information. If you begin researching without a plan, you could find yourself wasting hours reading sources that will be of little or no help to your paper. To save time and effort, decide on a research plan before you begin.

A thesis is not your paper’s topic, but rather your interpretation of the question or subject. For whatever topic your professor gives you, you must ask yourself, “What do I want to write about it?” Asking and then answering this question is vital to forming a thesis that is precise, forceful, and confident. A thesis is generally one to two sentences long and appears toward the end of your introduction. It is specific and focuses on one to three points of a single idea—points that will be demonstrated in the body. The thesis forecasts the content of the essay and suggests how you will organize your information. Remember that a thesis statement does not summarize an issue but rather dissects it. A strong thesis statement contains the following qualities. Specificity A thesis statement must concentrate on a specific area of a general topic. As you may recall, the creation of a thesis statement begins when you choose a broad subject and then narrow down its parts until you pinpoint a specific aspect of that topic. For example, health care is a broad topic, but a proper thesis statement would focus on a specific area of that topic, such as options for individuals without health-care coverage. Precision A strong thesis statement must be precise enough to allow for a coherent argument and to remain focused on the topic. If the specific topic is options for individuals without health-care coverage, then your precise thesis statement must make an exact claim about it, such as that limited options exist for those who are uninsured by their employers. You must further pinpoint what you are going to discuss regarding these limited effects, such as whom they affect and what the cause is. Ability to be argued A thesis statement must present a relevant and specific argument. A factual statement often is not considered arguable. Be sure your thesis statement contains a point of view that can be supported with evidence. Ability to be demonstrated For any claim you make in your thesis, you must be able to provide reasons and examples for your opinion. You can rely on personal observations in order to do this, or you can consult outside sources to demonstrate that what you assert is valid. A worthy argument is backed by examples and details. Assertiveness A thesis statement that is assertive shows readers that you are, in fact, making an argument. The tone is authoritative and takes a stance that others might oppose. Confidence In addition to creating authority in your thesis statement, you must also use confidence in your claim. Phrases such as “I feel” or “I believe” actually weaken the readers’ sense of your confidence because these phrases imply that you are the only person who feels the way you do. In other words, your stance has insufficient backing. Taking an authoritative stance on the matter persuades your readers to have faith in your argument and open their minds to what you have to say. Examples of Appropriate Thesis Statements The societal and personal struggles of Troy Maxon in the play “Fences” symbolize the challenge of black males who lived through segregation and integration in the United States. Shakespeare’s use of dramatic irony in Romeo and Juliet spoils the outcome for the audience and weakens the plot. J. D. Salinger’s character in Catcher in the Rye, Holden Caulfield, is a confused rebel who voices his disgust with phonies, yet in an effort to protect himself, he acts like a phony on many occasions. Compared to an absolute divorce, no-fault divorce is less expensive, promotes fairer settlements, and reflects a more realistic view of the causes for marital breakdown. Exposing children from an early age to the dangers of drug abuse is a sure method of preventing future drug addicts. In a crumbling job market, a high school diploma is not significant enough education to land a stable, lucrative job. Examples of Weak Thesis Statements Now that you have read about the contents of a good thesis statement and have seen examples, take a look at the pitfalls to avoid when composing your own thesis: A thesis is weak when it is simply a declaration of your subject or a description of what you will discuss in your essay. Avoid creating an announcement. Weak thesis statement: My paper will explain why imagination is more important than knowledge. A thesis is weak when it makes an unreasonable or outrageous claim or insults the opposing side. Weak thesis statement: Religious radicals across America are trying to legislate their Puritanical beliefs by banning required high school books. A thesis is weak when it contains an obvious fact or something that no one can disagree with or provides a dead end. Weak thesis statement: Advertising companies use sex to sell their products. A thesis is weak when the statement is too broad. Weak thesis statement: The life of Abraham Lincoln was long and challenging.

Your thesis will probably change as you write, so you will need to modify it to reflect exactly what you have discussed in your essay. Your thesis statement begins as a working thesis statement, an indefinite statement that you make about your topic early in the writing process for the purpose of planning and guiding your writing. Working thesis statements often become stronger as you gather information and form new opinions and reasons for those opinions. Revision helps you strengthen your thesis so that it matches what you have expressed in the body of the paper. The best way to revise your thesis statement is to ask questions about it and then examine the answers to those questions. By challenging your own ideas and forming definite reasons for those ideas, you grow closer to a more precise point of view, which you can then incorporate into your thesis statement. You can cut down on irrelevant aspects and revise your thesis by taking the following steps: Pinpoint and replace all non-specific words, such as people, everything, society, or life, with more precise words in order to reduce any vagueness. Animated graphic illustrating the development of a thesis statement, emphasizing the central argument or main point of an essay or paper. The revised thesis makes a more specific statement about success and what it means to work hard. The original includes too broad a range of people and does not define exactly what success entails. By replacing those general words, like people and work hard, the writer can better focus his or her research and gain more direction in his or her writing. Clarify ideas that need explanation by asking yourself questions that narrow your thesis. Animated graphic illustrating the refinement of a thesis statement, emphasizing the development of the central argument or main point of an essay or paper. A joke means many things to many people. Readers bring all sorts of backgrounds and perspectives to the reading process and would need clarification for a word so vague. This expression may also be too informal for the selected audience. Replace any linking verbs with action verbs. Linking verbs are forms of the verb to be, a verb that simply states that a situation exists. Animated graphic showing the process of crafting and refining a thesis statement, highlighting the development of the primary argument or main point of an essay or paper. The linking verb in this working thesis statement is the word are. Linking verbs often make thesis statements weak because they do not express action. Rather, they connect words and phrases to the second half of the sentence. Readers might wonder, “Why are they not paid enough?” But this statement does not compel them to ask many more questions. The writer should ask himself or herself questions in order to replace the linking verb with an action verb, thus forming a stronger thesis statement, one that takes a more definitive stance on the issue: Who is not paying the teachers enough? What is considered “enough”? What is the problem? What are the results? Omit any general claims that are hard or impossible to support. Animated graphic showing the process of crafting and refining a thesis statement, highlighting the development of the primary argument or main point of an essay or paper. While it is true that some young women in today’s society are more sexualized than in the past, that is not true for all girls. The writer of this thesis should ask the following questions: Which teenage girls? What constitutes “too” sexualized? Why are they behaving that way? Where does this behavior show up? What are the repercussions?

Analyzing Each Part of Your Paper Introductions When you look over the draft of your paper, the first part you should focus on is your introduction. Whether it is one paragraph or an entire chapter, the purpose of the introduction is to grab your reader’s attention while simultaneously giving a preview of the information that will be included in the following paragraphs. Make sure you draw your readers in from the beginning and follow with interesting and supportive information. If readers are not intrigued from the very beginning of the piece, they will quickly become distracted and avoid reading any further. What is the difference between a good and a bad introduction? A bad introduction is misleading, rambling, incoherent, boring, or so hopelessly vague that you know less about the topic than you did before you read it. On the other hand, a good introduction gets to the point, gives the reader a reason to keep on reading, and sets the stage for an exciting performance. An introduction is like a first impression; it is crucial to your image, and once presented, you never have a second opportunity. Your essay’s introduction is your reader’s first impression of your ability as a writer. Even if you are brilliant and have great ideas, a muddy or boring introduction will turn away many of your readers. Try not to miss the main point of your paper and/or give your reader the runaround in the introduction. If you have tedious openers such as “in today’s society” or openers that merely relay what the assignment is, change it so that it instead states your argument up front and presents a clear thesis right away, then you can subtly describe your paper’s overall structure. Try summarizing every paragraph into one sentence each, then put them all together to see if your introduction covers each point. Your introduction should state the issue at hand, establish your position regarding it, describe your paper’s organization, and identify the scope of your coverage. However, be careful not to write a wordy or overly dense introduction; your introduction should merely frame the rest of the paper. Revising the Thesis Statement Simply put, a thesis is your main point, the line of argument that you are pursuing in your essay. The thesis should answer two simple questions: What issue are you writing about, and what is your position on that topic? A thesis statement is often a single sentence (or sometimes two, and they can be combined using a semicolon or comma and conjunction) that provides the answers to these questions clearly and concisely. Ask yourself, “What is my paper about, exactly?” to help you develop a precise and directed thesis, not only for your reader, but for you as well. How can you be sure that your thesis is clear? Will your reader be able to identify it and see that the rest of your paper is supporting your argument? One sign of a weak thesis is if the statement does not make a concise claim, or if the claim is already proven true from its factual contents. Clarifying Your Position Make sure the reader knows your position on the issue. Your stance should be debatable and clearly expressed in your thesis, so check your entire introduction for vague, conflicting, or confusing sentences. Revise these sentences and replace them with statements that reflect your position on the topic. Unless you’re writing a summary, your introduction should make it clear how you feel about the issue at stake. Avoid vague sentences or “thesis statements” that fail to introduce your stance. Here are a few examples: Abortion is a very controversial issue in America. Capital punishment is both good and bad. Both of these examples introduce an issue rather than state a position. Again, your reader should already know that the issue you’re writing about is controversial; otherwise, there would be little reason to write about it. Unless you’ve been instructed to merely write a report or summary of an issue, assume that your professor wants you to take a position and defend it with the best evidence you can locate. This is a great opportunity to use the library databases to locate convincing research. However, you should not forget to fairly analyze all positions and debate opposing viewpoints. Even if you only cater to other opinions in order to disprove them, you will have strengthened your argument as a result. Narrowing Your Scope Besides explaining what your paper is about and your argument, an introduction may also state what you will and won’t cover. For instance, let’s say your paper is about an issue affecting mothers infected with HIV. Your introduction should reflect this focus, rather than present your paper as a general overview of HIV. If your scope isn’t clear, then readers will constantly wonder when you’ll address the larger topic–or even assume you simply forgot to do it. Let’s say you wanted to write a paper that argued that Ford makes better cars than Chevrolet. However, your introduction didn’t mention Chevrolet at all, but instead had the line: “Ford makes better cars than any other car manufacturer.” Your reader would quickly begin to wonder why you’re not talking about Toyota or Nissan! Try to anticipate what your reader will expect to see covered, and, if necessary, state it explicitly. Revising Your Body Paragraphs As you build support for your thesis in the body paragraphs, always ask yourself if you are spending your readers’ time wisely. Are you writing unnecessarily complex and confusing sentences, or using fifty words when five would do? If a sentence is already plain and direct, there’s no need to fluff it up. Flowery words and phrases obscure your ideas: conciseness is key. For example, why write, “Cats have a tendency toward sleeping most of the day” when you could simply write, “Cats usually sleep most of the day”? How about changing “The 12th day of the month of April” to “April 12th?” As you revise, look for overly-complicated sentences and substitute simpler ones for clarity. But wait–don’t you need to inflate your text so you can meet the minimum word count? Wouldn’t it be better to use “due to the fact that” for “because” and “in addition to” for “and,” since these phrases use far more words? Answer: NO. Any experienced reader will instantly see through such a scheme and will likely become irritated by the resulting “fluffy” prose. If you are having trouble meeting the minimum word count, a far better solution is to add more examples, details, quotations, or perspectives. Go back to the planning and drafting stage and ask yourself if you’ve written everything useful about a topic. How about your organization? From sentence-to-sentence, paragraph-to-paragraph, the ideas should flow into each other smoothly and without interruptions or delays. If someone tells you that your paper sounds “choppy” or “jumps around,” you probably have a problem with organization and transitions. The addition of quotations from a text that relates to your topic can be an excellent way to refocus your writing and avoid unrelated ideas. Keep in mind that few writers can write a well-organized paper in one draft. Instead, their first drafts are disorganized and even chaotic. The writing process takes patience. You can spend time sorting through your original ideas, consolidating related ideas into coherent paragraphs, and helping readers to follow your train of thought without derailing. Compare: Proofreading Your Work Proofreading is an important step in the writing process. One technique is to read your paper aloud, which will help you catch errors you might overlook when reading silently. Another strategy is to use spell check on your computer to correct any typos. Proofreading is an important step in the writing process. Read your paper aloud to catch errors, and use spell check on your computer to correct any typos. Finalizing Your Conclusion After all the work you have exerted while developing your paper, you want to end with a strong, fully developed conclusion. The conclusion and the introduction may be similar but may take several forms. Conclusions reestablish your paper’s purpose, or it may sum up your main points, reflect on the information presented, ask a thought-provoking question, or present a “call to action,” telling your readers what you want them to do with the information you have presented. Often, this choice will be determined by the genre, audience, or purpose of your paper. Nevertheless, your conclusion should accurately reflect the paper’s subject and provide the reader with closure. Finally, avoid ending a paper with new ideas or a thesis you have not already supported or explained in the paper. Remember, a conclusion is meant to reiterate the paper’s main argument and then return the thesis to the larger issue the paper is addressing and should not present any new arguments or topics in the process.

Be specific. The main points you make about your thesis and the examples you use to expand on those points need to be specific. Use specific examples to provide the evidence and to build upon your general ideas. These types of examples give your reader something narrow to focus on, and if used properly, they leave little doubt about your claim. General examples, while they convey the necessary information, are not nearly as compelling or useful in writing because they are too obvious and typical. Be relevant to the thesis. Primary support is considered strong when it relates directly to the thesis. Primary support should show, explain, or prove your main argument without delving into irrelevant details. When faced with lots of information that could be used to prove your thesis, you may think you need to include it all in your body paragraphs. But effective writers resist the temptation to lose focus. This idea is so important, here it is again: effective writers resist the temptation to lose focus. Choose your examples wisely by making sure they directly connect to your thesis. Be detailed. Remember that your thesis, while specific, should not be overly detailed. The body paragraphs are where you develop the discussion that a thorough essay requires. Using detailed support shows readers that you have considered all the facts and chosen only the most precise details to enhance your point of view. Integrating Evidence When you support your thesis, you are revealing evidence. Evidence includes anything that can help support your stance. The following are the kinds of evidence you will encounter as you conduct your research: Facts. Facts are the best kind of evidence to use because they  cannot be disputed and help build your credibility. They support your stance by providing background information or a solid foundation for your point of view. However, some facts may still need explanation. For example, the sentence “The most populated state in the United States is California” is a fact, but it may require some explanation to make it relevant to your specific argument. Judgments. Judgments are conclusions drawn from the given facts. Judgments are more credible than opinions because they are founded upon careful reasoning and examination of a topic. Testimony. Testimony consists of direct quotations from either an eyewitness or an expert witness. An eyewitness is someone who has direct experience with a subject; he adds authenticity to an argument based on facts. An expert witness is a person who has extensive experience with a topic. This person studies the facts and provides commentary based on either facts or judgments, or both. An expert witness adds authority and credibility to an argument. Personal observation. Personal observation is similar to testimony, but personal observation consists of your testimony. It reflects what you know to be true because you have experiences and have formed either opinions or judgments about those experiences. For instance, if you are one of five children and your thesis states that being part of a large family is beneficial to a child’s social development, you could use your own experience to support your thesis.

Here are a few tips that will help you during the peer review process: Begin by reading the assignment instructions. Your instructor will likely have clear goals for the peer review process, and following the instructions will help you provide significant and meaningful revision ideas for your peer. Read your peer’s essay from the beginning to the end without adding any comments. This first read allows you to grasp your peer’s intentions and focus. Complete a second reading of your peer’s draft and start looking for strengths and weaknesses. Make comments on the margins of your peer’s essay. Later, you can further expand on these comments when you complete the peer review form. Stop when you feel stuck and ask yourself, “If this were my paper, how would I revise it?” Set aside time to review the organization of your peer’s essay. Read their thesis statement and make sure their body paragraphs have topic sentences that connect to their thesis statement. If there isn’t a clear connection, consider helping your peer revise their topic sentence so the connection between the thesis and body paragraph is easy to understand. Be honest. Your peers want to earn the best grade they can, and your advice during peer review will help them achieve this goal. Think of every piece of advice as constructive criticism. Your advice will help them to create a stronger, more focused writing sample. The peer review process has the potential to help you create a much stronger and more focused essay. Try to be open to the process and give honest and thoughtful critiques.

Organizing Ideas When you write, it is helpful when your ideas are presented in an order that makes sense. The writing you complete in all your courses exposes how analytically and critically your mind works. In some courses, the only direct contact you may have with your instructor is through the assignments you write for the course. You can make a good impression by spending time ordering your ideas. Order refers to your choice of what to present first, second, third, and so on in your writing. The order you pick closely relates to your purpose for writing that particular assignment. For example, when telling a story, it may be important to first describe the backstory. Or you may need to first describe a 3-D movie projector or a television studio to help readers visualize the setting and scene. You may want to group your support effectively to convince readers that your point of view on an issue is well reasoned and worthy of belief. In longer pieces of writing, you may organize parts in different ways so that your purpose stands out clearly and all parts of the paper work to consistently develop your main point. Methods of Organizing Writing An outline is a written plan that serves as a skeleton for the paragraphs you write. Later, when you draft paragraphs in the next stage of the writing process, you will add support to create “flesh” and “muscle” for your assignment. The outline will utilize the ideas you developed during the prewriting process. When you write, your goal is not only to complete an assignment but also to write for a specific purpose—perhaps to inform, to explain, to persuade, or to achieve a combination of these purposes. Your purpose for writing should always be in the back of your mind, because it will help you decide which pieces of information belong together and how you will order them. Three common ways to structure a paper are chronological order, spatial order, and order of importance. Choose the order that will most effectively fit your purpose and support your main point. Chronological To tell a story or relate an experience To explain the history of an event or a topic To introduce the steps in a process Spatial To help readers visualize something as you want them to see it To create a main impression using the senses (sight, touch, taste, smell, and sound) Order of Importance To persuade or convince To rank items by their importance, benefit, or significance Organizing Your Writing Descriptive writing is most effective when it is organized well. Use the following information to decide what organization best fits your goals. Chronological order → best for describing events Spatial order → best for describing places Order of importance →  best for describing objects and people Types of Outlines A formal outline is a detailed guide that shows how all your supporting ideas relate to each other. This outline helps you distinguish between ideas that are equally important and ones that are less important. You can build your paper based on the framework you created in the outline. There are two types of formal outlines: the topic outline and the sentence outline. Format both types of formal outlines similarly. Place your introduction and thesis statement at the beginning, under roman numeral I. Use roman numerals (II, III, IV, V, etc.) to identify main points that develop the thesis statement. Use capital letters (A, B, C, D, etc.) to divide your main points into parts. Use arabic numerals (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, etc.) if you need to subdivide any As, Bs, or Cs into smaller parts. End with the final roman numeral expressing your idea for your conclusion. Here is what the skeleton of a traditional formal outline looks like. The indentation helps clarify how the ideas are related. Outlining a Paper