The idea of allowing children to participate is one that we have mentioned multiple times and is the one that we would like to emphasize as we end this chapter. In LOPI, children are allowed to participate even if their skill level would not be deemed to be “sufficiently competent” in certain areas. We would note that children become more competent in activity if they are allowed to participate in it; however, age-graded schooling is built on the assumption that there are skills that are only available to children once they have reached the appropriate level of maturity, the right age, or the right level of competence (Rogoff et al., 2005). This is counter to the idea that everyone can contribute, which is often seen in family and community activity where LOPI is common.

Studies conducted with families of toddlers showed that three-year-old children were often eager to participate in chores; however, this desire disappeared as children were not allowed to participate or not deemed competent enough to participate. Interviews with European American and Mexican heritage mothers of two- to three-year-old children in California showed that the Mexican heritage mothers incorporated their toddlers in ongoing work, whereas European American mothers tried to avoid having their children involved in ongoing work. In the interviews, over half of the European American mothers said they avoided including their toddler in joint work, often because they wanted to spend the time engaging with their child in a more meaningful or cognitively enriching way. Sometimes, this was also done in the name of efficiency (Coppens & Rogoff, 2017b). Mexican heritage mothers, in contrast, emphasized the joint nature of the activity and the idea that helping developed the desire to help even more within their children.

In LOPI, the expectation to observe ongoing activity is usually accompanied by an expectation of help, or participating in the activity itself

In this chapter, we outline some of the ways that learning in classrooms can more closely mirror what we see when children engage in Learning by Observing and Pitching In (LOPI) to family and community activity. LOPI is more than one particular behavior or practice, it is an approach to organizing learning that includes children having the opportunity to routinely observe and listen in on mature activities to which they are expected to contribute. This form of organizing children’s lives and learning is especially common in communities that have historical Indigenous roots in the Americas (Correa-Chávez, Mejía-Arauz, & Rogoff, 2015).

Means Advantage Share within your local community (e.g., colleagues, students, and parents) Informal; allows you to build your confidence Present at professional development days or workshops Semiformal; allows you to advance your topic and encourage others to pursue this or similar topics Present at local, state, or national conferences Formal; allows you to share your research with interested colleagues outside your school setting Publish your research in a local newsletter or publication Formal; contributes to your career and allows you to be active in your professional community Publish your research in peer-reviewed professional literature, following the guidelines of the publication Very formal; helps you gain recognition for being published and earn a highly prestigious and rewarding professional status

As long as the procedures for collecting, analyzing, and interpreting the data are valid, trustworthy, and transparent, you may choose other ways of reporting your findings. Some of these include poster presentations, portfolios, electronic media, and artistic or dramatic performances. You may find that one of these presentation formats communicates your study more effectively and is more engaging and accessible to your audience than other methods

Section Content Abstract (a summary of the study, optional) Overview of the study Introduction Presentation of the topic of the study and the questions you explored Literature review Summary of existing research on your topic Methodology Explanation of how the study was conducted and the data collection methods Findings and results Presentation of the study’s findings with relevant evidence Discussion Explanation of the results in relation to the study’s questions and to other research on your topic, implications for practitioners, and suggestions for future studies References A list of the references cited or quoted in the report Appendix Additional documentation (that is too detailed to include in the report itself)

Reflecting and reporting on the full cycle of inquiry, from shaping a research question to reaching the study’s conclusions, has several benefits. First, the very act of writing the report allows you to stand back and think holistically about what you have seen, heard, experienced, and learned from the process. This self-reflection enhances your ability to organize your thoughts, crystallizes your understanding of the study’s results, and presents clearly and convincingly your newly gained knowledge (Wolcott, 2009). Second, the written account serves as tangible evidence of your personal achievement, documents your professional accomplishments, and contributes to your career portfolio (Mills & Gay, 2019; Phillips & Carr, 2014). Third, producing a report of your inquiry allows you to expand your circle of influence by sharing your findings with your colleagues and a wider audience (Mertler, 2017). Finally, making your research accessible to others helps you connect with a community of learners who share your desire for school improvement and personal growth through action research (Holly et al., 2009).

Three of the most commonly used types of mixed-methods designs that combine both qualitative and quantitative approaches are (1) the embedded design, (2) the two-phase design, and (3) the triangulation design. The procedures of data analysis vary among the three and the differences are based on three elements: (1) whether the data are analyzed concurrently or sequentially, (2) when and how the integration of the qualitative and quantitative data occurs, and (3) whether the qualitative or quantitative approach is given priority in the study or the two approaches are equal (Creswell, 2019). Because the procedures for analyzing qualitative and quantitative data were already discussed in this chapter, in this section we provide a definition of each mixed-methods design, an example of how each design is used by the practitioner, and suggestions for how to present the analysis and interpretation of each design in the

In your conclusion, carefully assess the implications of your study. You may ask yourself questions such as How might my action research contribute to my practice? What changes will I make as a result of my newly gained knowledge? How can the new information be helpful to others? and Are there additional questions that were brought up in my study that I might pursue in the future? Additionally, you may want to reflect on your journey as an action researcher. Questions that you may ask yourself include What might I change or do differently next time I launch an action research project? How did the experience of action research affect my perception of my work? and How did it affect my professional development? The checklist in Figure 7.23 includes questions that can help you review and evaluate your study’s conclusions.

Another way to lend trustworthiness to your interpretation is to practice reflexivity and openly discuss how your personal experience, biases, and subjective judgment shape your interpretations. You need to ensure that your interpretations are drawn from participants’ words, behaviors, and interactions, rather than from your own personal beliefs and biases (Glesne, 2015; Rallis & Rossman, 2017). For example, Jesse deeply believes in democratic classroom management style. However, when interpreting the different styles of the teachers in the school, he consistently reminds himself to present and analyze the teachers’ perspectives without judging them or projecting his own values.

. The process of using predetermined and emerging categories to analyze data is summarized in Figure 7.4.

Items Main advantages Main disadvantages Usually have high content validity and reflect the knowledge and skills taught in class Teachers have control over the test content and format Allow for frequent and ongoing assessment of students and modifying instruction accordingly Identify students’ strengths and weaknesses Item format is familiar and used in many other contexts Allow teachers to adapt the test to the unique needs of individual students Selection-type items can be electronically and quickly scored Selection-type items can cover a large amount of content Supply-type items allow for assessing higher-order skills, writing skills, and creativity Supply-type items can provide opportunity for nuanced and original answers Writing good test items requires time and expertise to construct, score, and evaluate Tend to have lower reliability than commercial tests Inconsistent grading system within and across settings Selection-type items tend to measure lower-level skills, such as recalling facts Selection-type items usually have only one correct answer, unlike real life Guessing can be a confounding factor in selection-type items Supply-type items can be more difficult to grade objectively Supply-type items may not well represent the content being tested or the curriculum objectives Scoring supply-type items, such as open-ended questions and essays, may be subjective and time-consuming

Chapter or unit tests that are prepared by textbook publishers are usually criterion-referenced tests. Table 6.1 summarizes the main advantages and disadvantages of norm-referenced and criterion-referenced standardized, commercially developed achievement tests. TABLE 6.1. Main Advantages and Disadvantages of Norm-Referenced and Criterion-Referenced Standardized Commercial Achievement Tests Main advantages Main disadvantages Developed by professional test writers Pilot tested and carefully constructed Tests usually have high reliability Can be standardized across different settings Students and parents are familiar with these test formats Can accommodate the needs of students with learning difficulties Norm-referenced tests allow a comparison to other similar students across the district, state, country, or internationally Criterion-referenced tests allow a comparison to preset criteria or benchmarks rather than to other students Cannot provide ongoing monitoring of students’ progress May not have content validity and may not match the curriculum being taught May not be sensitive to cultural, linguistic, or ability differences High-stakes tests can cause a great deal of test anxiety and stress Preparation for high-stakes testing takes time away from classroom instruction Norm-referenced tests may not have immediate implications for teaching Criterion-referenced tests may not easily allow for a comparison across different settings

Besides the multiple formal assessments administered to schoolchildren, each teacher has many opportunities to conduct informal assessments of students throughout the day. For example, as a classroom teacher and an action researcher you may observe your students’ levels of engagement and cooperation, their enthusiasm and participation, their interaction with one another, or how they play with one another during recess. You, as an observant teacher, know that there are many opportunities for these informal assessments that can help paint a more complete picture of the students, their dispositions, progress, challenges, and areas where they need help and where they excel.

Assessment data are an integral part of life in schools. With the heavy emphasis on accountability, evidence-based decision making, and students’ scores from standardized tests, you are surrounded by test data. Although most of these data are designed to monitor students’ progress and performance, they are also used to evaluate teachers and schools

Figure 5.29 presents a checklist of suggestions and guidelines for gathering and using official and personal artifacts and documents.

There are, at times, opportunities to survey your students as part of your ongoing instruction. For example, you may quickly survey your students by asking for a show of hands in response to a simple set of questions about students’ attitudes, or you may ask the students to use a clicker to show their understanding of a new concept that you teach. These strategies allow you to obtain information easily and quickly, as a natural part of the teaching process.

Quantitative Observation In contrast to the open-ended qualitative observation, structured closed-ended observations (like tally sheets, checklists, and rating scales) are focused on predetermined categories. Whereas in qualitative observations the behavior is recorded as it happens, in quantitative observation a particular set of behaviors or activities is listed in advance and checks are made to record them as they occur. As a teacher observer you adopt a nonparticipant role, noting the frequency or the level of the behavior being studied. Whereas qualitative observation techniques result in subjective narrative descriptions, quantitative observation techniques require that you systematically direct your attention to specific measurable behavior that results in numerical data. Quantitative observations allow a comparison among settings, individuals, and situations, and frequencies, patterns, and trends. Tally Sheets A tally sheet is used to track the frequency of a target behavior or event at a specific point in time. Figure 5.5 is an example of a tally sheet showing how many times during class Johnny raises his hand and asks for help.

Observation Steps The following are some guidelines and suggestions to help you plan and carry out your classroom observations: Find a place that provides a good view of what is going on, without being conspicuous. Spend some time at the beginning of the observation without taking notes and then confine your attention to the general characteristics of the setting. Identify the people, activities, and interactions that will be the focus of your attention. Draw a diagram of the classroom. Record your descriptive and reflective field notes on the observation protocol form. Start with a broad sweep and gradually narrow your focus to particular participants or interactions that are most valuable for your research. Record what happens in the class. It would be helpful to note the progression of the classroom activities and topics discussed. Write down behavioral descriptions in the descriptive field notes section as they occur; be sure to set them off from the reflective field notes. After completing the observation, take some time to review your notes and add any descriptions and reflections you may have missed. Respond to questions such as What is important here? and What would I want to focus on more closely if I return to this class? Behavior

Our classrooms and schools are rich with data. As educators, we are continuously bombarded with information and intuitively “collect data” every day. When we listen to our students or to their parents, when we observe how students behave on the playground, when we try a new curriculum or revise an existing practice, or when we review students’ portfolios—all these activities are an integral part of our work. We do not consider them “research” because they seem to be natural elements of the educational routine

The research question guides your choice of inquiry procedures. The process of constructing data collection tools, therefore, begins by contemplating your research question, deciding what information you need to collect in order to answer this question, and determining what kinds of strategies will be most effective in providing this information.

Table 4.1 lists the most common approaches to sample selection that are used in qualitative and quantitative action research

In action research, most samples are chosen from a population that is of interest to the researcher.

In other words, researchers are looking for cause-and-effect relationships and articulate their predictions about these relationships by stating their hypotheses prior to the start of the study.

Although action research is conducted by practitioners in their own practice, it is still considered research and should be monitored and conducted by following ethical guidelines. You should ensure the safety, confidentiality, and well-being of those you study or those who may be affected by your study. Ethical consideration of your students and your colleagues should be key elements of your action research study (Mertler, 2017) and you should protect the interests and well-being of all the study’s participants (Stringer, 2014). As you plan your inquiry, you need to consider the following issues as they relate to your action research.

. The list of questions in Figure 3.1 may help you in reflecting on your choice of research approach

A summary of the characteristics that distinguish among qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-methods approaches is presented in

Quantitative research is designed to gather numerical data from individuals or groups using statistical tests to analyze the data collected (Slavin, 2007)

Qualitative research is designed to study school situations and events as they unfold naturally. The focus of the investigation is on the meanings of these experiences for the individuals and groups in these settings.

In turn, these assumptions shape the choices that are made by practitioners about the questions that they pose, the way they collect and analyze their data, and the type of conclusions derived from the data. Kuhn (1996) defined these alternative sets of assumptions and perspectives, or worldviews, as “paradigms.”