When taxes rose, governments also faced continuous threats of defiance and even armed resistance from citizens.
Oddly enough, they say “history repeats itself,” all of this sounds eerily familiar. I am not sure how the standard American family is getting by— food, taxes, fuel, housing, and childcare are all insanely expensive. Unfortunately, there’s no reprieve from the cost of living crisis for most.
As much as 90 percent of the pre-Columbian population of the Americas died of smallpox, cholera, influenza, typhoid, measles, malaria, and bubonic plague—all brought from Europe.
I didn’t realize that the population that died from smallpox, cholera, influenza, typhoid, measles, malaria, and the plague were so high in the US— it makes sense. Typically the only one you hear of is small pox. It is scary to think that the eradicated diseases are starting to make a comeback and will mutate as time goes on.
The accelerating rate of global connections in the sixteenth century precipitated the unprecedented movement of peoples, plants, animals, and bacteria. This movement is known as the Columbian exchange, and it soon came to encompass lands that lay far beyond the purview of Columbus and his contemporaries, eve
I wonder why it was named after Columbus, rather than any of other explorers. When he passed away, he was unpopular and his own men had turned their backs on him; so why the praise? The spread of people, plants, animals and disease was detrimental to indigenous people that the explorers came into contact with.
Protestantism bolstered state power because Protestant leaders preached absolute obedience to godly rulers, and the state in Protestant countries assumed direct control of its churches.
Throughout this class, it was interesting to learn that Catholics named the pope as all knowing and as their figure to follow rather than Jesus. I guess it goes to show how little I know about religion because I didn’t think that was allowed? I thought it was taught to worship god and no one else compared to him. It was interesting to think that Martian Luther brought this to light and taught against this, and other questionable teachings by the church.
Innkeepers were forbidden to allow anyone to consume food or drink without first saying grace, or to permit any patron to stay up after nine o’clock. Adultery, blasphemy, and heresy all became capital crimes, and even penalties for lesser crimes were severe.
I found this interesting and felt as though it tied back to the Code of Hammurabi of how there was an offense for each crime. Then, there was rules and curfews that citizens must follow or be punished.
And a century later, when Luther was a child, the papacy had begun to claim that the purchase of indulgences could even benefit the dead, meaning that faithful men and women could purchase multiple indulgences for deceased family members or friends to reduce the number of days or years they spent in purgatory.
I can see why Luther would have thought that the church was so corrupt and why he had a moral issue with what they were doing. There is no wonder the Catholic Churches had and still have to this day and it is evidenced by the enormous churches that still stand today.
Not only did he fast and pray continually, he also confessed his sins so often that his exhausted confessor reportedly joked that he should wait until he did something really bad. Still, Luther regarded himself as deeply sinful and feared that he could never perform enough good deeds to deserve salvation.
I wonder why he felt as though he was such a sinful person in comparison to others? It appears that he would have been successful in any endeavor he attempted and came from humble origins. He didn’t agree with some of the church’s teachings and educated people against these practices.
He was surprised to find that she resisted his “advances”—that is, rape—so fiercely that he had to tie her up—which of course made it easier for him to “subdue” her. In the end, he cheerfully reports, the girl’s sexual performance was so satisfying that she might have been trained, as he put it, in a
I am really not sure how THIS is the real account, in comparison to what we are taught K-12 and even up through the associates level. I’ve been in school, in and out of college and taken several World and American history classes and this was never mentioned, anywhere.
Although Columbus did not return with spices to prove that he had found an alternate route to Asia, he did return with some small samples of gold and a few Indigenous people—whose existence gave promise of entire tribes that might be enslaved or “saved” by conversion to Christianity, and whose lands could
This was probably one of the most shocking things I’ve learned this semester or at least in the top 5. The fact that the “history” taught in the US was based on fiction, absolutely blew my mind.
res of guns mounted in fixed positions along their sides and swivel guns mounted fore and aft. These guns and ships were vastly expensive, but they made it possible to back mercantile ventures with military power. Although Vasco da Gama had sailed to the Indian Ocean in 1498
We visited the USS Constitution when it was docked in Boston and we thought it was pretty spectacular but it pales in comparison to modern ships. It would be interesting to see a side by side comparison, even from 1498 to 1797 ship design when compared to today’s standards.
Having given away so many sources of revenue and authority, the popes of the late fifteenth century became even more dependent on their own territories in central Italy. But to tighten their hold on the Papal States, they had to rule like other Italian princes: leading armies, jockeying for alliances, and undermining
I didn’t realize that the popes had any type of military power or I guess understand why they’d have anything to do with the military. It was interesting to see and learn how much of an influence and power the popes had and still do.
Instead, he taught that the individual man should work to free his immortal soul from its “always miserable” mortal body—a Platonic idea very compatible with late-medieval Christian piety. Ficino’s translation of Plato’s works into Latin made them widely accessible—again, thanks to the medium of print.
I am sure that once Plato’s philosophy was translated and widely distributed thanks to the printing press, it would have been more influential than even he originally thought. The late-medieval Christian of earthly suffering versus the transcendence of the soul from the earthly body would have spread rapidly.
In the Balkans, especially, many Christians were enslaved as children, handed over by their families to pay the “child tax” imposed on areas too poor to pay a monetary tribute.
I wonder if this was following the model set by the church or where this idea came from? It is kind of insane to think of where we are as parents now versus then or even 30-40 years ago and how the family dynamic has changed.
Because humanism was an educational program designed to produce virtuous citizens and able public officials, it also excluded women, who were largely denied any role in Italian public life—at least in theory. In practice, they frequently showed themselves more capable than their male counterparts.
I wonder what context this refers to- how were women superior to the male counterparts if women were not allowed certain roles in society? This is something I will need to research further.
living in a rural castle or urban palace surrounded by a lavish household, embracing the values and conventions of chivalry, and serving his ruler at court and in warfare.
We discussed this in one of our Kaltura meetings. It is interesting to think that we have adopted a materialistic culture, however, it far predates our society. The goal of working toward having nice things and then staying put in that life was “the American dream” for a long time. Now, this generation is changing and challenging the traditional way of living. I wonder what our society will look like as more people stop having children, purchasing property, and buying materialistic items and focus more on wellbeing and travel.
This reestablished a healthier ecological balance, replenishing nutrients in the exhausted soil and providing habitats for animals in danger of extinction. Meanwhile, the smaller population reduced demand for grain, so farmers began to diversify their crops and establish livestock herds
As devastating of a time as it was, it did completely change the course of history for the time. The dense population made the plague spread rapidly, however, the plague brought about a renewal and time of rebirth and rejuvenation to society.
Not only did hunting require a good horse, a pack of trained dogs, servants, and an array of weapons, it also required elites to enclose certain areas of protected land so that they could be stocked with game.
Again, another tradition that is carried out by royals overseas. Here, I feel as though there is a divide. Those who hunt for trophy that have disposable income to spend on exotic hunts versus those who hunt to provide meat for their families who tend to be in poorer economic statuses.
Most of the degrees granted in our modern universities derive from those awarded in the Middle Ages, even though the courses of study are very different. No university curriculum included history or vernacular languages or anything like the social sciences prior to the nineteenth century.
It is amazing to see the evolution of the education system. The subjects that are still considered the core subjects were the focus of education then as they are now and the degrees we all seek were created during the Middle Ages.
Then, in 1179, Pope Alexander III decreed that all cathedrals should have at least one schoolteacher who would accept all male pupils, rich or poor, without fee.
I am sure that this was huge for education within their society and led to an increase in educated people that could contribute to their society. This seems like a good opportunity to strongly influence the thinking of the young, impressionable minds.
Paradoxically, the veneration of a single, idealized woman coincided exactly with the suppression of most women’s access to positions of power in the Church; as the cult of the Blessed Virgin grew, the opportunities for aspiring holy women shrank.
Throughout Europe, it has been a reoccurring theme for women to be oppressed and held to a completely different standard than the men of the society. The comparison of women to Eve and the assumption that they lived in sin would have been incredibly frustrating and to be held to such an impossible standard, it makes me wonder if this didn’t drive women toward lives without the church? Toward paganism and other lifestyles? Did this encourage women to leave the Catholic faith and pursue other options?
Cistercian monks followed Benedict’s Rule, but in the most austere way possible. They founded monasteries in remote areas, far from worldly temptations. They shunned all unnecessary decoration and elaborate rites.
It was interesting to learn about the dedication of those who professed their faith and committed their lives to the church, such as the monks and the Knights of Templar. I can’t imagine the amount of dedication it would take to withstand that type of pressure.
Most disturbingly, Innocent’s council mandated that “infidels” be distinguished from Christians by their distinctive clothing: the origins of the infamous “Jewish badge
Is this where Hitler and the Nazis got the idea for distinguishing Jewish people during the Holocaust? This chapter and the last one have been devastating. I can’t imagine what they went through.
In most places, claims to property were made on the basis of custom and memory, not documentation. When property changed hands, the chief witnesses were people, and when questions arose, it was these people (or their heirs) whose testimony proved ownership.
This is so different compared to the other societies that we have studied throughout this course. It is interesting that during the code of Hammurabi times, it required contract and receipts for every purchase, and then this was based more on tradition than concrete contracts.
In the wake of the First Crusade, violent attacks against Jews were becoming increasingly common in northwestern Europe, while their legal rights were also being curtailed.
I think the most astounding thing I’ve learned this semester is how much the Jewish people have suffered over the last thousands of years but they still remain faithful to their religion and persist today.
Magna Carta established some important principles that would continue to shape the laws of England and, eventually, its modern colonies: the king could levy no taxes without the consent of the kingdom, no free man could be punished until he had been judged guilty by a jury of his peers, no one could be arrested without a warrant, and no unqualified person should hold public office.
It is interesting that the king, who I thought could impose what ever laws he thought appropriate with the proper council, actually can’t do that. They put it out for a vote, so even though it is a monarchy, it is also more democratic than I thought it was.
Essential words for commerce include traffic, tariff, alcohol, muslin, orange, lemon, alfalfa, saffron, sugar, syrup, and musk, to name just a few. The word admiral also comes from the Arabic title emir, as do words that tell the story of Europe’s reliance on Islamic science: alchemy, algebra, algorithm, alkali, almanac, amalgam, cipher, soda, magazine, and zero—not to mention the names of stars such as Aldebaran and Betelgeuse.
I think that it is interesting that, though we’ve taken so much from the Islamic culture, their advancements in medicine, architecture, and language, we still view them in such a harsh, negative light.
it also hinges on a reliable supply of cash and the availability of credit. It is no accident that the earliest participants in the commercial revolution of the Middle Ages were cities located in regions whose rulers minted and regulated a strong currency:
When we learned about the modern banking systems that were used, I was really surprised to see how “Letters of Credit” are still in use today and how heavy of an influence this time period had on modern banking.
Both humans and animals could eat oats, and legumes provided a source of protein to balance the intake of carbohydrates from bread and beer: the two main staples of the peasant diet in northern and central Europe.
Did they realize the need for protein for sustenance and health or do you think it was an incidental finding? It seems as though they had a really good understanding of farming, a much better understanding of medical care than I assumed they did, and understandings of the sciences. I wonder how much knowledge about basic nutrition they actually had and the links nutritional deficiency has to disease.
The wheelbarrow was a crucial invention, as was the harrow, drawn over the field after plowing to level the earth and mix in the seed.
Again, I assumed that this was a much more modern invention. I remember harrowing fields as a kid. I can’t imagine doing it powered by oxen or horses. The innovations that they used would have been of immeasurable value, especially as cities became more populated.
Europe’s agricultural revolution had already begun in the eighth century, fostered by monastic inventions such as the new heavy plow that could cut and turn the rich soil of northern Europe (Chapter 7).
Prior to taking this class, I thought of the plow as a much more modern invention, but as it turns out, plows were being used long before this.
Caesar revised the Roman calendar to make a 365-day year with an extra day added every fourth year. This Julian calendar (as adjusted by Pope Gregory XIII in 1582) is still observed, and the seventh month is still named after Julius.
This is interesting. I didn’t realize that July was in reference to Julian Caesar.
A woman now had more authority within the household because she contributed to its upkeep. If her husband did not show due respect, she could leave him and deprive him of income. It is ironic, too, that the growth of Rome’s slave system gave some women greater freedom, for slaves took over the traditional work of child rearing, household maintenance, and the endless tasks of spinning and weaving
I am sure the newly instituted laws that allowed the elite women more freedoms felt like a long over due blessing. Unfortunately, it came at the price of the enslaved. I wonder how the different duties or tasks were decided for the slaves? Some had more rights and served in more elite roles - scribes, personal assistants, etc. while others were deemed less worthy and performed menial tasks. Was it a punishment system or was it based on skill?
A Roman father, no matter what his social class, had absolute authority within his household, including the power of life and death. If he was too poor to raise a child, he could expose it (leaving it to perish or to charity) or sell it into slavery. If his wife or child dishonored him, he could kill them with impunity
The amount of patriarchal power and influence within the Roman culture is mind blowing. To have one person within a family and household in charge of all decisions— up to life and death, seems crazy to me but there are traces of these practices in modern religions, too, I suppose.
What was the secret of Roman success? For one thing, Romans did not impose heavy burdens of taxation or tribute; instead, they demanded that allies contribute soldiers to the Roman army
At first glance, I was surprised that they wanted man power rather than tax funding from their allies. However, the more I think about it, the more it makes sense. The only way to continue their current M.O. of expanding their empire is to have a plethora of troops to keep fighting battles to conquer more land.
Latin Right: a trading pact, provisions for intermarriage, and the migratio, which allowed a resident of one settlement to emigrate to another and, after a year’s residence, have the full rights of a citizen there.
Learning about how much influence ancient history has on modern practices has been incredible. They addressed many of the same political topics that we still discuss today.
They were skilled metalworkers, artists, and architects, from whom the Romans later took their knowledge of the arch and the vault. They also took the love of blood sports and the practice of foretelling the future by studying the entrails of animals and the flight of birds.
I thought that the Romans attempted to tell the future was odd but interesting, so I researched it a little further. Often, they would look at the organs of sacrificed animals, often sheep livers, and would study the size, shape, and texture of the organ to make their prediction. They also used a variety of other methods: using chickens, eggs, bird flight paths, and urine bubble patterns to make predictions. https://www.history.co.uk/articles/ancient-roman-methods-for-predicting-the-future Google AI Summary
Stoicism therefore emphasized self-discipline and the fulfillment of one’s duties. It taught tolerance and forgiveness, and urged participation in public affairs as a special responsibility for those with able minds. It condemned slavery and violence, although it took no real actions against these evils because it saw them as inevitable—and because extreme social change might be worse.
I found this to be interesting, especially in the contrast to Epicureanism because despite them thinking certain aspects of civilization were wrong, such as slavery, they didn’t think they could change it. It seems similar to the modern mindset of “this was God’s plan” and in a stark contrast, the “you only live once” mentality that is embraced by younger generations today.
Many breakthroughs in astronomy, mechanical engineering, and physics occurred in Alexandria. In particular, the study of medicine advanced greatly: freed from the taboos of their homeland, Greek researchers were permitted to perform autopsies on the bodies of dead criminals and vagrants, making anatomy a scientific discipline.
This almost answered my question regarding the ancient science of anatomy and physiology, however, I wonder how much the ancient Egyptians knew prior to the Greek researchers? It is interesting to see the development of the sciences in Alexandria after the researchers were away from Greek rules against autopsy.
Aristotle taught that the highest good consists in the harmonious functioning of the individual human mind and body. Since humans differ from animals because of their rational capacities, they find happiness by exercising these capacities appropriately. Good conduct is therefore rational conduct, and consists in acting moderately: showing courage rather than rashness or cowardice, temperance rather than excessive indulgence or self-denial.
I found this to be interesting because it ties in with modern wellness and psychological theories (hierarchy of needs, the elements of wellness, etc.) that are still very popular today. Life should be about balance, one extreme or another is not healthy for anyone.
The longest and most famous dialogue is now known by its Latin title, the Republic. In it, Plato argues—through the character of Socrates—that social harmony is more important than individual liberty or equality (see Competing Viewpoints on page 140).
We discussed in the meeting last week how, if the three Abrahamic religions would cast their differing opinions aside, there would be far less conflict. If they focused on the qualities we share, rather than the sole focus on how they are different, I think society would find a more unified way of life. That being said- if Plato (via Socrates) argued that we should combine and work toward a common goal— it is the overall wellbeing of civilization rather than individual liberty, why was this guidance never taken seriously?
We might take 399 B.C.E., the year of Socrates’ execution, as the end of an era. The polis, the engine of innovation in the Greek world, had broken down. This had a profound impact on the arts, philosophy, and political thought.
When I first found out that Socrates was executed, I was shocked, although, maybe I shouldn’t have been. Similar to rituals such as “burning at the stake” or “drownings” in the rivers of those accused of witchcraft, crimes, etc., anyone that was ahead of the times and challenged the viewpoints of the time periods were seen as a threat. It is incredible to think, how much further advanced would society be if there was a more open mindset in these times, as well as other times throughout history, and the brightest people were not extinguished.
The average young wife would bear between four and six children before she died, usually around the age of thirty-five. Her place might then be taken by another, younger woman.
It is interesting to see the vast differences, within the same time periods, regarding how differently the different populations regarded women. They were given more freedoms, well fed, and respected in Sparta versus in Greece where they were hidden away to bear children as if they were ashamed of the women in their population.
A series of intellectuals (now known as the pre-Socratics, because they came before Socrates) raised new and vital questions about the relationship among the natural world (the kosmos), the gods, and men. Often, their explanations moved the influence of the gods to the margins or removed it altogether, something that other Greeks regarded as blasphemous
I can imagine that these people were really shunned in the beginning when they first started to disregard the prominence of the gods and instill a more logical method of thinking. The culture of believing that the gods were all knowing and powerful was so prominent for so long, that I am sure this was not well received.
Greek historians dated events by olympiads, the four-year periods between games
It is interesting that the tradition has been kept to hold the Olympics every four years, but it is now open to all, rather than specific populations. The success at the games is still met with the same glory and appreciation in the athletes perspective countries and fields.
As smaller villages grew into towns, inhabitants of rival communities came into more frequent contact, and some degree of cooperation among them became necessary. But long centuries of isolation did not make such cooperation easy
I found it interesting that the villages got along out of necessity, especially with the scarcity and competition for resources. Typically, it is the competition for resources that creates higher instances of conflict. The next paragraph talks about how politics brought the different villages together, which again, was surprising to me since it is such a source of tension in today’s society.
As we noted earlier, a thirty-character alphabet had evolved at Ugarit by the end of the Bronze Age. Around 1100 B.C.E., the Phoenicians refined this writing system down to twenty-two characters in order to further facilitate communication and accounting among their trading partners.
I thought that it was interesting that a new language was developed and a new writing system to keep record of trade deals, merchant orders, and communicate between trade partners. It was also interesting that we still model our alphabet off of what they used so long ago. I am sure this shared language made things much easier and was helpful for those who kept formal records.
If one economy suffered, the effects of that decline were sure to be felt elsewhere.
In week 1, we learned of the communal attitude that ancient Egypt and the code of Hammurabi participated in. The Egyptians understood that if the canal in one area was damaged, it impacted not only that farmer, but everyone down stream. The same holds true for the trade routes. Would they send aid to those distant communities that were more fragile? Or was it every man for himself?
she even launched several successful military campaigns and extended trade and diplomacy. The arts also flourished, setting standards that would be emulated for a thousand years. Indeed, Hatshepsut was one of the most ambitious builders in Egyptian history, which is saying something.
I found this to be interesting because she was such a powerful leader in a world that was traditionally dominated by men. Furthermore, I wonder if trade, diplomacy, and art flourished because women, are traditionally more skilled at softer communication skills. Despite it saying that she launched successful war campaigns, I wonder if her being a woman was a contributing factor in her success.
In contrast to the Assyrians, the Hittites were military conquerors and colonists who imposed themselves and their language on the peoples they vanquished.
This is more similar to what I envisioned when thinking about different populations conquering others. The Assyrians allowed people that they came in contact with to keep aspects of their religion and they built upon the existing culture, rather than force their own upon the new lands. This seems like a better system to me, but I had always heard the method that the Hittites employed where the conquering force demanded the conquered abandon their beliefs and customs to adopt the ones brought by the conquering force.
This is why the Egyptians developed their sophisticated techniques of embalming, whereby many of the body’s organs were removed and treated with chemicals—except for the heart, which played a key role in the ka’s final judgment. A portrait mask was then placed on the mummy before burial, so that the deceased would be recognizable. To sustain the ka, food, clothing, utensils, weapons, and other items of vital importance would be placed in the grave along with the body.
I remember vaguely learning about the mummification process in elementary and middle school. With the advanced procedures performed, I wonder, had we been able to recover more of the papyrus writings, if we would be more advanced in the sciences. Surely they studied anatomy and physiology as they mummified the deceased.
In these settled societies, significant differences began to arise in the amount of wealth individuals could stockpile for themselves and their heirs. Dependence on agriculture also made it more difficult for individuals to split from the community when disputes arose.
I thought that it was interesting that a hierarchy didn’t arise until much later than I thought. I guess I assumed that there was always some natural pecking order, even in smaller, nomadic villages. The storage of grains is still similar to what we use today and I found that fascinating that those designs carried through this far into the future.
They honored their ancestors with religious rites and buried their dead beneath the floors of their houses.
I found this to be interesting. My husband and I have had several discussions about different cultures and the way that they honor their deceased loved ones— more often than not, it is a time of celebration rather than mourning. This came to light when my grandma passed away and she did not want the typical funeral or “mourning”. She was a well educated and well traveled woman and thought that the best way to honor her was to be happy and celebrate her life.
Such foundational stories are usually called myths, and they are an early form of history. For the people who told them, these tales helped to make sense of the present by explaining the past.
I thought this was an interesting point because we often view “myths” as being fables or being untrue. I’ve never associated myths with being early forms of history, although when you hear stories of mythical creatures, such as Loch Ness or dragons, those stories had to have come from somewhere. It would be interesting to do a deeper dive and see where these myths originated and why they continued to be told throughout history.