Commenting on the pathological studies, Billingsley (1968) stated that no other area of American life was “more glaringly ignored, more distorted or more systematically devalued than black family life (p. 49).”
Important quote to possibly include
100 Matching Annotations
- Oct 2025
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psycnet.apa.org psycnet.apa.org
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the family life cycle model provides an anchor in which family deviations are recognized and family interventions are aimed.
studying the family life cycle will help with creating family interventions (Purpose of article???)
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However, it is also clear that in order to answer such questions, theories and methodologies must be developed that can address them
If we want to research extended family's impact on ecological systems, we need to start here by developing our understanding of families better.
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(e) the influence of extended family on other ecological systems.
Still not much research on the impact of extended family on adolescent mood :(
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Finally, the most important implication of the current review is the need for more systematic research on extended families
Purpose for the article (???)
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Also, the genogram permits the therapist to outline the objectives of family therapy and solicit extended family members' assistance in resolving family issues. This approach to the black family may help preserve the cultural and societal context in which the family exists
This info can improve the help black people get in therapy
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For example, offering tax incentives to extended families who share residence with one-parent families could increase such living arrangements and reduce some negative effects of poverty.
Broadening our research and definition of families could reduce some of the negative effects extended family may have regarding socioeconomic status
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it does represent a viable resource for many one-parent families
This is going in the conclusion, all 4 sources back this up.
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However, McAdoo (1978) has suggested that the problems and issues that others (Aschenbrenner, 1978; Martin & Martin, 1978; Stack, 1974) have observed are probably tied to the socioeconomic level of the particular extended family
the negative effects aren't tied to race, but socioeconomic status (which can be tied back to race in some ways but getting into that gets us off track of the research question)
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In such cases the child becomes an inadvertent victim of too many caregivers
This is the only negative effect I've seen for children/adolescents
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negative side effects also exist.
The negative effects seem to be geared more towards the adults than the adolescents
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According to this last perspective, any comparison between black and white samples is assumed to be a cross-cultural analysis.
Black and White families can't be compared the same way
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The influence of the extended family within the black community is extremely important because of the large number of one-parent households that require additional childcare and economic support
Affirm the importance of extended family in single parent homes
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Consistently, culturally based social studies have shown that the extended family helps to sustain black family life
The benefits of extended family are shown clearly through black families based off origin, values, beliefs, and varying familial structures that are distinct from the white "standard"
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This approach examines the black family within the context of black cultural tradition, concepts, and values that differ in certain crucial respects from other groups in American society
researchers turned their focus to tradition and culture, and less of the white "norm"
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The basic problems with the nuclear definition of family and methodological approach to the black family centered on two general assumptions
The main problems of research on black families based on the nuclear definition was caused by assumptions that a) all black people will possess cultural attributes to the same degree, b) research on lower socioeconomic black families represented the entire black population (they generalized all of their research) and c) That white and black people had a cultural equivalence and that their behaviors could be compared the same way based off of a common standard
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The results often indicated that black families had certain deficits such as one-parent families, poverty and low-income status, and high juvenile delinquency rates
not related to my question, just guessing that this resulted in harmful stereotypes for black people (now that I think about it maybe it is related because the results would've been different if they didn't skew the data)
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using the norms of the majority group. This design emphasized the nuclear family model.
skewed results because they forced black families into their standards
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. In either case, operationalizing family reflects an explicit application of personal and cultural values and beliefs about family and family life.
Bias and beliefs hinder research of black families
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Other significant familial associations, for example, parental, sibling, avuncular, and cousin links of spouses and offsprings, can and do have important direct and indirect influence on immediate family life experience
These familial bonds have importance, but because they aren't included in the "standard" definition, research on the effects are limited
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suggests that diverse family forms have always coexisted with one another in a way that is similar to the coexistence of diverse ethnic cultures in American society.
is he Lenoro-Otero suggesting that there's a connection between diverse family structure and diverse cultures and ethnicities?
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Recent surveys have reported marriage rates and birth rates have declined while the rates of cohabitation, single parenthood, abortion, divorce, and remarriage have risen
This will cause many families to deviate from the "norm", the "standard" definition will exclude many families in the US that may not be white or middle to upperclass
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family is defined exclusively as the nuclear family structure, and other family structures are treated as variations of this model
aligns with how other sources explained the changes in our definition of family overtime
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Consistent with the pluralism of life styles, values, and beliefs in the United States, family life represents another facet of American society in which blacks and whites differ.
Black Americans have different family life (close with extended family) than White Americans. Their norms are seen as atypical and divergent from the "norm", causing limited research on the effects of extended family on Black Americans
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www.lovetoknow.com www.lovetoknow.com
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Examples of extended families
Popular examples/representation of extended family: Modern Family Full House Tia and Tamera Raven's Home Friends and Greys Anatomy (show family that isn't necessarily blood related) Home Alone Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Harry Potter Two and a Half Men
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multiple generations of a family living in the same household or keeping very close ties.
I would say this is a concise, effective definition of extended family.
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Harry Potter
I don't really watch any of these shows, but ** I think ** this is the only one that shows more downsides to extended family
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Modern Family
While I've only seen clips, I find this family to be the most relatable and similar to mine, I think it's good representation personally
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The benefits of an extended family include:
Some benefits of extended family: connection with family, greater financial security, increased sharing of family values, and more role models for younger family members
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Divorce:
I didn't think of this factor, I probably would relate to it more if I wasn't so young when it happened
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The reasons for extended families to be so prominent vary, and some factors are cultural;
Some reasons for extended family to be prominent or important: Cultural, economic, health, divorce
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less common in western Europe and North America.
You'd find extended families to be more common with people of color in America, backed up by a lot of sources I've found but didn't necessarily choose to use.
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there is often only one head of the household for family groups living together.
One role of extended family is the ** head of the household. ** Can be determined by age (who is the oldest/most senior), who contributes most significant finances ("breadwinner"), or who's home it is/was initially.
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Close friends Close co-workers
I don't think I'd personally count close friends and/or close co-workers but everyone is different.
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Every extended family can be different
Every family looks different. But typically, extended family is made up of one married couple per generation.
can include grandparents, great-grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, nieces, nephews, in laws, etc.
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taking on responsibilities for that household.
What kind of responsibilities do extended families take on? Does it vary between families?
Both of these questions are answered in the text.
One example of extended families' responsibilities is providing financial aid. extended family and their roles do vary with each family.
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These extended family members could include aunts, uncles, cousins and other relatives.
Summary: Extended family involves additional relatives aside from the core nuclear family (parents and their children) that live with or close by who might take on parent-like roles or shared responsibilities. Typically includes relatives like grandparents, aunts, uncles, cousins, etc. The key characteristic of extended family is that there are multiple adults that aren't the parents of the children
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These types of extended families may include one or more members who regularly send money to each other.
Technology made it easier for family members who live farther away to keep close ties and contribute to the family
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and understanding the structure of an extended family and why it can be a valuable type of family unit can help you better understand your own family structure.
This source will help define what exactly extended family is and which members to consider when evaluating their effects on children's well-being
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onlinelibrary.wiley.com onlinelibrary.wiley.com
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emotional family functions did not holdthe greatest significance for the youngest generation, and the analysis did not reveal an increasein the instability of extended family bonds across generations
The study proved that while it's true family roles are shifting and individual choice is increasing, it's not causing instability in extended family bonds. (the case is against intergenerational change associated w individualization)
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Characteristics of individuals (both of the participants and theirextended family members), their (nuclear) families, the living environment, and the specificsociohistorical context were perceived by participants as highly influential, sometimes evendetermining their extended family bonds.
Thye study showed that characteristics, nuclear family, living environment, and social and historical context influenced their extended family bonds
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intergenerational transmission of kinship norms could actas a counterbalance to changes in extended family bonds associated with individualization
The reason that there isnt the change associated with individualization that theorists expected, is because there are factors being passed through generations are working against it.
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Moreover, the continuing impor-tance of traditional family contact, the shared intergenerational experience of declining familycontact in youth, and the transmission of kinship norms across generations, argue for inter-generational continuity rather than change associated with individualization.
continuing importance of traditional family contact. Shared experience of declining family contact at a certain age over generations and passing down norms/ideas about family argue that there isn't change associated with individualization. rather the family dynamic stays the same throughout generations
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intergenerational transmission of family normsmay inhibit intergenerational changes in extended family bonds, such as those associated withindividualization, thereby acting as a counterbalance to the individualization of these bonds.
family norms being passed through generations may prevent changes in extended family bonds. counterbalancing the idea that people will choose their extended family bonds
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A few participants explicitlyattributed this difference to the nature of youth as a life phase, during which they grew moreindependent from their families in general.
Instability wasn't found by generations over time, but by the age when children grew more independent
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In general, individual choice with whom to have a family bond seemed to play a moreimportant role in the extended family narratives of the youngest generation. This could bederived from the finding that the youngest participants more often explained their family con-tacts in a more detailed and elaborate manner compared to participants from the two oldestgenerations.
Younger generations where more detailed and elaborate than older generations when describing the bonds of extended family. (Because younger generations chose which bonds where important to them and wanted to keep.)
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intergenerational transmission
intergenerational transmission- the process of values, beliefs, behaviors, and characteristics being passed down through generations
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The three generations were similar regarding gender distribution, religion, andliving environment during their youth
not a very diverse group of people, could be missing factors in the results
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However, the iterative process of cod-ing, refining codes names and relationships, and theory development continued until no newtheoretical insights emerged, indicating theoretical saturation (Charmaz, 2014; Flick, 2019)
This entire process is how they ended up with 14 families that explored most or all possible info and theories
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he use of sensitiz-ing concepts in the initial coding phase
being aware and sensitive to nuances and complexities in data. They started this way so that other themes could still be revealed
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This approach allowed emerging questions and provi-sional theories—such as the impact of specific personal characteristics—to guide the selectionof the next family to be analyzed.
They had a software program perform coding to pick which interviews would be analyzed based off the amount of info given related to the topic, emerging questions from people analyzing data, and provisional theories
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All of the participants were interviewed in per-son, most of them in their own home. B
probably to make them feel more comfortable, since this subject can be sensitive
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The participants were selected using a convenience sampling approach
not the most reliable method, could be more randomized
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The use of preexisting datameant that the data had to be sorted and special consideration had to be given to the selectionof the interviews, as the scope of the primary study for which the data were collected extendedbeyond the focus of the present study (Heaton, 2004: Long-Sutehall et al., 2011).
The interviews had to be carefully picked and studies because the original study at the time of the interviews had a wider focus than this study
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2Department of Pedagogy and EducationalSciences, Faculty of Behavioural and SocialSciences, University of Groningen, Groningen,The Netherlands
work in applied sciences (including behavioral and social sciences) they took data from people who live near them (nonwestern data, but still applies to how western families work)
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May 2024 Revised: 12 January 2025
Recent article, later found out their data was from 2015, meaning not much research about the individualization theory was done between then and now, so we can still use this to deepen our limited knowledge
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using grounded theory techniques indata analysis, specifically from constructivist grounded theory (Charmaz, 2014), we allowed unex-pected themes to emerge alongside the main themes from our research question.
Grounded theory techniques- qualitative research methods used to develop theories directly from data (you don't start with a hypothesis)
Constructivist grounded theory- generating theories by gathering data from participants instead of using preexisting theories (useful when little or no theories exist for a topic)
gathered data this way so they can find unexpected themes
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a preexisting database was used containing321 interview transcripts describing youth experiences of three generations—a young person ofapproximately 18 years old, one of their parents, and one of their grandparents—within 107 families.
Interviews weren't done in real time, they found an already existing database
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However, empirical research on individualization in theNetherlands is limited (De Beer, 2007; De Beer & Koster, 2009).
Mostly theory, not enough direct proof
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Although De Beer did not find strong evidence for individualization inthe Netherlands as a combination of detraditionalization, heterogenization, and emancipation(De Beer, 2007; De Beer & Koster, 2009), social psychologist Hofstede (1991) identified theNetherlands as one of the most individualistic countries in the world
That's why they interviewed families in the Netherlands
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family rela-tionships could change whenever individuals’ circumstances or emotional needs changed. This,in turn, led to greater instability in family bonds, making them weaker and more fragile
Theorists believed individualization made extended family relationships weaker and more fragile because their relationships changed once people's circumstances or emotional needs changed
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due to modernization processes from the end of the 19thcentury and throughout the 20th century, individuals were no longer dependent on extendedfamily for their livelihood (Beck-Gernsheim, 1998). This caused the nuclear family to turn itsgaze inward and focus on relationships within the nuclear family home; a process also describedas “family individualization”
Before the 19th century, extended family lived together and depended on each other. Then during the modernization process individuals stopped being dependent on extended family to live and people started focusing more on spouses and children (Nuclear family)
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This process refers to the“gradual loss of individuals’ attachment to traditional institutions” (De Beer & Koster, 2009,p. 55), such as the church, trade unions, political parties, and the family.
Detraditionalization- the process of individuals gradual detachment to traditional institutions (Church, trade unions, political parties, and family)
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Adding to the complexity, various social trends, such as deinstitutionalization, emancipa-tion, and heterogenization, are grouped under the umbrella of individualization (De Beer &Koster, 2009). Alongside industrialization and globalization, these macro-social processes areoften viewed as having contributed to the modernization of Western societies
Individualization has become an umbrella term, making it harder to define
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The findings of this study suggest that the individualization of extended family bonds, asoutlined by sociologist Beck-Gernsheim (Beck-Gernsheim, 1998; Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 2002), is only partially supported
There is change, but not for the reasons theorized???
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The studyfocuses on three successive generations—a young person around 18 years old, one of their par-ents, and one of their grandparents—in 14 families (N = 42).
Method: They interviewed 14 families and analyzed the narratives from 3 generations. (this included narratives from children) (42 people total)
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ndividualization theorists who describe changes in personal relationshipstend to focus primarily on relationships between romantic partners or within the nuclear family(Bauman, 2003; Beck & Beck-Gernsheim, 1995). Moreover, within family studies, researchaddressing extended family relationships is relatively scarce
the individualization theory has not been thoroughly observed directly (not focused on extended family)
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According to individualization theory, the process of individualization has weakened familybonds in Western societies, beginning with the erosion of ties with extended family members
Individualization Theory- The theory that the increase of individual choice (along with families shifting from an instrumental to an emotional function) have cause extended family bonds to become unstable
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Local file Local file
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Addition-ally, future work may study heterogeneous responses based onracial or ethnic identity or gender.
There are racial and ethnic factors that play a big role in this question. Generally, POC spend more time with extended family than white people.
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TheATUS data contains well-being responses that were collected afew hours after interactions, rather than in real time. Although thisremains a minimal concern, we suggest caution when comparingthese findings to experiential sampling studies
There are limits to this study. The responses weren't collected in real time, there's no results for long-term responses, and there's a need to better measure the quality of social interactions. Compare the results with caution
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This pattern suggestsnonparent role models play an important compensatory role infamily interactions for adolescents in stepfamilies
Extended family benefits are more compensatory
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Older siblings, therefore, played apositive role in the daily well-being of their younger siblingswithout sacrificing their own well-being
older siblings play a more valuable role than younger siblings, but they still both can improve well-being
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suggesting that infrequent and brief contact limited the benefitsof this type of contact.
I wonder if the long-term stressors are because of this factor, or other factors?
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This finding has noteworthy importance con-sidering the documented long-term consequences of stress on thedevelopment and health of the youth brain
this study reveals benefits that add to the study of long-term consequences of stepparents on adolescents.
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suggest that there isnot a single universal path for adolescents and stepparents to builda strong relationship.
strong stepparent relationships depend on each individual child and stepparent.
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This lack ofresponse to parents may come from a lack of inclination
is this because they didn't feel inclined to spend time with the stepparent? Or both parents because the parents are spending more time together?
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sharing time with younger siblingsmarginally decreased feelings of sadness, suggesting that despitesome level of conflict in sibling relationships
there are generally more benefits to interacting with siblings
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other family members were lessimportant.
while there are benefits to interacting with other family members, the most important members are still the parents, which is why most studies are sone on parent-child relationships.
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which suggested benefits to spending time with multiplefamily members.
While parental relationships are most important, studies revealed that interacting with both parents was more beneficial, suggesting benefits to interacting with multiple family members.
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This study used the ATUS to examine differences in responsesto social interactions by family structure, underscoring the impor-tance of social interactions with family members as a criticalcontext of adolescent development. Scrutinizing adolescent socialinteractions allowed us to understand how adolescents interactwith family members and how they feel during interactions. Thestudy was also conducted to provide insight into the lived experi-ences of adolescents hailing from different family structures, pro-viding relevant information for parents, clinicians, and social sci-entists.
This study was important in expanding our knowledge of adolescent development because it studied more than just immediate and parent-child relationships. It revealed the importance of interacting with other family members and how each member affcets adolescents
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ATUS
The American Time Use Survey- conducted annually to gather info about how people allocate their time. (Work, Family, Leisure, etc.)
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acompensation theory
compensation theory- when individuals adjust their behavior in response to perceived disadvantages or transgressions
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congruence theory
congruence theory- model of attitude adjustments made after a person receives new info. (initially separate attitudes become connected after learning new info)
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Al-though there is evidence that extended family interactions may bemost beneficial for younger children in single-parent households
why is it most beneficial for them? I'm guessing it has something to do with how much time the parent spends trying to fulfill both parental roles.
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Interacting withand caring for younger siblings is a practice that occurs regularlyand broadly across household types (Wikle, Jensen, & Hoagland,2018), and adolescent affect during this type of contact deservesmore attention.
Interacting with younger sibling is common, but the effect on adolescents isn't studied enough. We mostly have results of affects older siblings have
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Thus, pos-itive forces (e.g., parental support) and negative forces (e.g., dif-ficulty spending time together) likely mesh during adolescentinteractions with nonresident parents, perhaps resulting in variableemotions during youth interactions with nonresident parents.
The role resident parents play during interactions with nonresident parents can affect the emotions adolescents have when interacting with nonresident parents
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social capital
social capital- the value (advancing the goals of individuals and groups) from positive connections and relationships between individuals
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Because parent– child relationships remain central to a familysystem, factors affecting parent– child relationships, such as familycomplexity in stepfamilies and single-parent families, alter allfamily interactions, family alliances, and family boundaries
Other family relationships are affected by parent-child relationships and any factor that affects a parent-child relationship, affects all family relationships (interactions, alliances, and boundaries)
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social learning theory
Social learning theory- learning that occurs through observation, imitation, and modeling ex: kids will learn how to positively interact with other family members because they learned out to socially interact w their parents.
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These differences likelyhave consequences for other family interactions. Notions of com-pensation (Noller, 2005) suggest that youths in nonnuclear familiesmay systematically seek out and differentially benefit from inter-actions with siblings and extended family members to counteractabsence of one parent in the household or difficulty spending timewith resident parents (Derkman, Engels, Kuntsche, Van der Vorst,& Scholte, 2011). On the other hand, congruence suggests thatpositive interactions with parents spill into positive interactionswith other family members due to a social learning theory mech-anism
Parent-child interactions in a nonnuclear home (such as single parents or stepparents) can have resulting consequences for other family interactions. Both examples showed benefit of interacting with other family members. One by seeking out positive interactions with other members, and the other by a social learning theory.
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Thus, the exploration of several dimensions ofemotional responses provides a rich and nuanced view of adoles-cent core affect during social interactions
exploring the different moods and responses children have when interacting with different family members (not just nuclear) provides us with a more in depth and nuanced view of adolescent core-affect
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coreaffect
core affect- influence reflexes, cognition, perception, and behavior
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Extant research on youth affective state when interacting withothers has focused almost exclusively on the parent– child rela-tionship and has neglected other family relationships
The research isn't focused on the effects of non-parent- child relationships on adolescent development, meaning there's missing factors in current studies that could be crucial to understanding heterogeneity in adolescents.
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heterogeneity
Heterogeneity- Diversity in character/content
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within-group analysis
Within-Group analysis- statistical method that compares same subjects in different conditions or at different points in time
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less work has evaluated heterogeneity in social interactions and adolescent responsesto family interactions stemming from variation in the home context. Using a large, nationally represen-tative data sample of adolescents from the American Time Use Survey (N 1,735), this study employsa within-group analysis to separately examine feelings of meaningfulness, happiness, sadness, and stressduring social interactions for adolescents living in nuclear homes, single-parent homes, and stepparenthomes. Results suggest adolescents in nuclear homes benefited from interactions with parents and wereless affected by siblings and extended family members. On the other hand, adolescents in nonnuclearhomes benefited from interactions with nonresident parents, older siblings, or extended family members
Heterogeneity isn't commonly studied in relation to this theory, so they used a large, nationally representative data sample of adolescents to separately study adolescent feelings in different home contexts by doing a within- group analysis. Adolescents had benefits from interacting with whoever they lived with.
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The study informs parents, clinicians, andpolicymakers designing interventions for adolescents, because it more precisely conveys informationabout which family members positively influence adolescent emotional responses.
This study helps with designing interventions for adolescents because it conveys more precise info about which family members positively influence emotional responses in adolescents.
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family systems theory suggests family structure could differen-tially shape adolescent emotional functioning and social development due to differences in family-levelcontexts.
The Family systems theory suggests that variation in home contexts can shape emotional functioning and social developments in adolescents.
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. Family structure remains a crucial dimensionof heterogeneity in adolescent life
Family structure is an important role in the diversity of character in adolescents. their responses and mood with certain family members member can affect their relationships
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This study examines how often adolescents interact with family members and how adolescents feel whenspending time with parents, nonresident parents, stepparents, siblings, and extended family members.
The study focuses on how often adolescents interact w family members and how they feel when spending time with certain members.
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