This gap also occurs within more homogeneousareas: for example, in Europe there is a gap between Northern Europeanand Mediterranean countries.

Acompany’s brand can legitimize an overall value assessment equal totwice the value of its tangible assets, such as industrial plants, ware-houses, and distribution networks.

Before the industrial revolu-tion everyday goods were produced locally and in an artisanal way.

At the same timethis loss of jobs has been offset by the expansion of new professions, forexample via the growth of specialized jobs related to information management, as well of a “service proletariat” mainly employed in sales andlogistics.

atforms for participatory information production affect only par­tially the relationship between media professionals, politics, and citizens.

Democratic and the Republican Party have a chance to win the elections, has decreased dramatically, with the effect of paralyzing the political debate at the national level

ndeed, the refusal to participate is a known commercial problem for social media business models; sites such as Facebook need to protect themselves by, f

Thanks to this collaboration, state agencies can, for example, turn on the camera and microphone of any laptop or smartphone and use them to spy on a person without their knowledge.

WikiLeaks; against the Israeli government to protest against the occupation of Palestine;

gathered about 1.5 million Twitter follow­ers in two months – an incredible result for a female teenager of color in the contemporary United States.

nd define themselves in public as devoid of leaders, these new movements tend to maintain hierarchical political roles while not making them immediately visible

the 2010 protests in Iran have been dubbed a “Twitter revo­lution,” while the “Arab spring” that created a series of uprisings in Middle Eastern countries in 2011 has been described as heavily relying on Facebook for political mobilization

s “Bernie Sanders Dank Meme Stash,

Clinton’s staff had promised to make the algorithm public after the election, but the promise was broken after the defeat Clinton suffered from Donald Trump

They are not neutral but, as most players in the world of mass media, express specific worldviews, values, and interests.

Political information leaks are not new, but digital media have changed their scope by allowing the publication of millions of documents and providing the public with an opportunity to read, analyze, and use them without professional intermediation.

n today’s public sphere, the gatekeeping function is no longer exclusively in the hands of broadcast media, but rather at least partially distributed among users who produce, select, and examine news and information,

rich and vital public sphere is crucial to both the functioning of democracy and the legitimacy of political power.

In fact, web companies and governments alike collect information on or retain a copy of most digital communications.

First, digital media increase accessibility: the cost of opening a communication channel, as well as producing and distributing information, is lowering. If in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries the costs required to enter the mass media system

Given all this, it is too early to tell whether the global wave of popular protests since 2010 has transformed or radicalized what we mean by activism. Its effects will likely remain temporary and ambivalent.

online activism appears more radical and subversive in China than in the United States.

he term then came to be applied to a large number of users pooling their collective wisdom to carry out a specific task, such as exposing a corrupt government official by revealing his private information.

In Western democracies, popular political radicalism declined in the wake of the protest cycle of the 1960s and 1970s.

Over the past thirty years, activism has also become less likely to mean radical and revolutionary action and more likely to mean moderate civic action.

As alliances were forged with civil liberties groups, lawyers, and librarians, what is now popularly known as the “digital rights movement” was more fully constituted (

; and finally, on the more liberal front, civic and open government hackers throughout North and South America have sought to improve government transparency by cre-ating open standards and applications that facilitate data access and sharing (Gregg and DiSalvo 2013; Schrock forthcoming).

anticapitalist hackers run small but well- functioning collectives that offer privacy- enhancing technical support and services for leftist crusaders

Another engagement still is displayed by “the crypto- warriors,”

while free software runs directly against this current (Berry 2008).

“a mix of cybernetics, free market economics, and counter- culture”— are so well resourced that their activities and values, however specific, circulate in the public more pervasively than those at work in other domains of hacker practice

Whether appraising them positively as freedom fighters or deriding them as naive miscreants, journalists and academics often pin the origins of their practice on an anti-authoritarian distrust of government combined with an ardent sup-port for free market capitalism.

in the English language evoke such a bundle of simultaneously negative and positive— even sexy— connotations: mysterious, crim-inal, impulsive, brilliant, chauvinistic, white knight, digital Robin Hood, young, white, male, politically naive, libertarian, wizardly, entitled, brilliant, skilled, mystical, monastic, creepy, creative, ob-sessive, methodological, quirky, asocial, pathological.

Hacker

The fact that women are more likely to be-come computer scientists in Malaysia than in the United States does not necessarily mean it is easier for women to be geeks in Malaysia

Geeks’ embrace of this term now signifies their own uniqueness, their distinctness from the mainstream and com-monality with each other.

et even as geeking signifies aca-demic or technical potency, it retains hints of cultural ambivalence. Though geeks may now be celebrated as heroes, they are still charac-terized in popular culture and the popular press as physically weak,

“all citizens face the difficulty of escaping their past now that the Internet records everything and forgets nothing” (Mayer- Schönberger 2009;

e stresses the need for “a readily alterable record” whose entries can be rewritten or deleted.

To “externalize memory” to storage media is to no longer commit it to cognitive memory.

campaigns against software patents and opposes proprietary software in general.

However, open and informal innovation has an important cultural and industrial role. The term “remix culture” describes a form of cultural production that encourages the cut and paste of existing products, for example samples from rock songs remixed in a hip hop base.

It is important to emphasize that these forms of organization are not completely horizontal or democratic: hierarchies exist and remain crucial.

Linux is also the basis of commercial operating systems such as Google’s Android.

The freedom to run the program as you wish, for any purpose (freedom 0). ● The freedom to study how the program works, and change it so it doesyour computing as you wish (freedom 1). Access to the source code isa precondition for this. ● The freedom to redistribute copies so you can help your neighbor(freedom 2). ● The freedom to distribute copies of your modified versions to others(freedom 3). By doing this you can give the whole community a chanceto benefit from your changes. Access to the source code is a precondition for this. (Stallman 1986)

n the case of Star Wars, the approach has been traditionally flexible: the original producer, Lucas Film, used to run a platform for fans to exchange their productions, so that they could create alternative stories while giving the industry control over possible profits.

Fans (of a band, a movie, a television series) are increasingly actively involved in the production of alternative content, for example in the forms of videos, fiction, video games, or cartoons. One of the cases taken as an example by Jenkins was the community of Star Wars fans.

Wikipedia, the non‐profit online encyclopedia writ-ten collaboratively by thousands of users around the world.

if technology systems are value laden with white, heteronormative, patriarchal value systems (Brock 2018), then the process of untangling and decolonizing technology may require an approach that incorporates alternative epistemologies.

here is Facebook’s ongoing lawsuit with the US Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD), wherein the US government charges that the platform allows real- estate companies not only to select adver-tising audiences by zip code but also to choose those audiences through protected classes or “interest”- based proxies for these classes, whether race, religion, sex, disability, national origin, or color (HUD v. Facebook 2018).

to make about gender, just as it has statements to make about race, class, sexuality, and nationality.

cause if intersectionality begins to function as a watch-word of not just gender studies but also media studies, it suggests these same scholars must be attentive to the pol-itics of identity.

Friedan’s rendering of the femi-nine mystique failed to consider women of color, work-ing women, non- US women, and non- heterosexual women as part of the feminine mystique, thus position-ing them outside the category of woman altogether.

f course, as they have in social movements like the Arab Spring, Black Lives Matter, and Occupy, new media and related social net-working platforms like Facebook, Twitter, Snapchat, and Instagram play roles in social projects challenging and building different conceptions of belonging and prac-tices of sociality

United States, to take one example, cultural practices in public and private institutions celebrate multicul-turalism, while court rulings outlaw race as a basis for allocation of resources or claims to grievance in public life.

Racial projects operate through feelings, emotions, and the body, where we live and feel the truth of race at the most quotidian and commonplace levels.

as well as new social movements that utilize digital and social media to facilitate collective social unrest and to agitate against oppressive forces, including those of global capital.

And of course, substituting “race” for “caste” in the American context or exploring “race” and “migration” in Western Europe will reveal a similar lack of imagination and profound misunderstandings. Alternative media and digital activism

media globalization has led to proliferation rather than a destruction of identities

with the advent of television and the subsequent expo-sure of the private lives of celebrities and politicians.

do not keep people away from the public space, but rather can be consid-ered a factor that nurtures their rich social life

The construction of a personal brand takes place in a particular media environment, in which the technological characteristics of the platform influence and structure the labor of self‐branding.

Facebook’s choices reinforce the idea that white is “normal” and shapes its ads accordingly.

In this context, the local subculture makes use of sexist and homophobic insults that are met with opposition only from a minority of users

it has become common to use a dead person’s social media profile, especially on Facebook, to announce their passing and collect messages and memories from friends and relatives.

unctioning of Instagram if we are unable to know how its algorithms select and rank pictures

since users share details of their private life publicly via digital platforms.

Berners‐Lee and CERN decided to release these innovations without restrictions,

According to such theories, contemporary societies co‐opt and nurture cultural elements coming from social movements and adopt them as part of the culture of a flexible and consumerist capitalism

structured in large and complex organizations, oriented toward economic growth and mass consumption, and less influenced by political ideologies

the new knowledge workers felt removed from the ideological views of the right or the left.

the weakening of the conflict between capital and labor

According to this “cyber‐utopian” view (Morozov 2011), digital networks would lead to widespread access to knowledge and a radical political democratization, as well as to a new economy based on communication and flexibility.

For example, major corporations such as Netflix would be willing to pay internet providers to speed up their content at the expense of other websites.

The growth of energy consumption is due mainly to the popularity of particularly energy‐intensive services, like video streaming, which represents almost 70% of internet traffic.

For example, the Gameboy, a portable video game console produced by Nintendo which had widespread commercial success in the 1990s, is now used to produce “8bit” techno music through do‐it‐yourself musical software.

The introduction of the tablet did not cause the disappearance of the book. Rather, books evolved into different technological formats.

Globally, the number of internet users has passed four billion, or more than half of the world’s population.

but they actually push us away from some of the most important questions media theory can ask today

covery, and control, as well as classic modernist tropes of masculine mastery over feminine nature

American trend of shortening English words

talking drum to the mobile phone, skipping over theintermediate stages.

For now, in fact, noone in the world could communicate as much, as fast,as far as unlettered Africans with their drums.

The idea was that if a pair of needles were magnetizedtogether—“touched with the same Loadstone,” asBrowne put it—they would remain in sympathy fromthen on, even when separated by distance. One mightcall this “entanglement.”

. For God is thought of always as ‘speaking’ to human beings, not as writing to them.

Sound exists only when it is going out of existence.

In an oral culture, to think through something in nonformulaic,non-patterned, non-mnemonic terms, even if it were possible, wouldbe a waste of time, for such thought, once worked through, couldnever be recovered with any effectiveness

An oral culture has no texts.

three (3) days

To provide adequate academic advising and as much information as possible, to ensure that students fully understand how a Pass/No Pass grade might impact them as a student (e.g. scholarship requirements and advance degree requirements);

a lack of efficient transportation

individuals’ physical, social, and mental wellness and their academic success and retention;

East suggests a ritual function

Symbols are things whose special meaning allows us to conceive, express,and communicate ideas. In our society, for example, bla is the symbol ofdeath, the star-spangled banner stands for the United States of America, andthe cross for Christianity

lay as a heavy material was less suited as amedium of communication over large areas.

Sumer was a land of small city-states in whi the ief priest of thetemple was the direct representative of the god.

Since religion and magic alike were sacred, they becameindependent. e priest used prayers and offerings to the gods, whereas themagician circumvented them by force or triery. Family worship survivedin the Osirian cult, and because of a practical interest, magic was used bythe people.

Scribes became a restricted class and writing a privileged profession.

Split-brain resear supports this hypothesis,as both the literate and the numerate activities seem to be concentrated inthe le hemisphere of the brain.

e Arabs had translated sunya, or “leave aplace,” into the Arabic sifr, or cipher, the name we still use for zero as well asthe name for the whole place number system itself.

has given way to the theory of a picto-graphic origin.

f somewhat lessobvious. Writing has been used to tell lies as well as truth, to bamboozle andexploit as well as to educate, to make minds lazy as well as to stret them.

One of the most significant consequences of printing was its influence onthe Protestant Reformation. Harvey J. Graffexplores this relationship in ournext piece

quinas showed the la of tolerance to opponents that might beexpected from a defender of the establishment, justifying excommunicationand execution and arguing that since their sin affected the sou

econsequences of his mistake would shake the authority of Rome to itsfoundations and create an entirely new kind of axemaker

God could not make the sum of the internal angles of atriangle add up to more than two right angles.

He said that belief took over at the point where knowledge ended.

In many other religions, nature was divine, or it shared divinity, butChristian doctrine gave humankind a position separate in nature from therest of created things.

ccording to both the Old and New Testaments, man had been givendominion over nature

By the twelh century, any sins or offenses commiedagainst ur doctrine had to be privately divulged to a priest, and failureto do so could lead to punishment, even to the ultimate sanction ofexcommunication from the Christian community, whi would deprive theguilty party of all forms of protection under civil or canon law.

However, the seventeenthcentury was not a time of opportunities for sooling; not until theeighteenth century does it seem that the teaing of literacy to girls as wellas boys was frequently aempted.

e reason for aritable giving was usually traditional, to aid the poor orto further religion. Very few gis were meant to rehabilitate the poor or turnreligion to constructive secular needs

Similar processes within the international reformmovement occurred in France, Switzerland, England, the Low Countries,and Scandinavia. e Reformation was brought to the New World bycolonists.

then the main effort of the printer must be to convey themeaning of the writer to the reader, with the least intrusion of his ownpersonality.

hinese dominions as a fullydeveloped art

One imaginative journalist envisioned the simultaneity of telephonecommunication as a fabric made from the fibers of telephone lines,

e wirelessproliferated source points of electronic communication, and the telephonebrought it to the masses.

It would appear from manyof the answers to this query, “that a reduction in royalty” would be a necessity

Druggists typicallyhad telephones, as well.

During the first fewdecades of telephony, industry marketers devised a variety of applications,including transmiing sermons, broadcasting news, providing wake-upcalls, and many other experiments.

In short, the warehouse receipt, whi stands as arepresentation of the product, has no intrinsic relation to the real product.

In a certainsense the telegraph invented the future as a new zone of uncertainty and anew region of practical action.

Lightweight New York literati became WestCoast wage slaves and hated themselves for abandoning what they imaginedwould have been glorious literary careers.

Many verses of different songs have been gathered whi would not bear printing inthis report. Dancers were oen seen who endeavored to arouse interest and applause bygoing through vulgar movements of the body.... A young woman aer dancing in su amanner as to set offall the young men and boys in the audience in a state ofpandemonium brought onto the stage a large python snake about ten feet long. esnake was first wrapped about the body, then caressed and finally kissed in its mouth.1

rices had generally been subject tonegotiation, and the buyer, once haggling began, was more or less obligatedto buy.

Of course, this vision came notably vested with cultural hieraries and alocal/global matrix—region/nation, here/elsewhere, local beat/wire story.

One enthusiast proposed half seriously that aphonograph could be installed in the new Statue of Liberty, then underconstruction in New York Harbor, so it could make democraticannouncements to passing ship

He deniedany malicious intent, noting that the broadcast had been announced in thepapers and that its fictional nature—he refers to it as a “f antasy” and a “f airytale”—was declared at the outset, and during the station break andconclusion.

The War of the Worlds [October 30, 1938

But until that happy day, radio networks of the 1930s responded to thepressures of social negotiation in two ways: first, by creating a separatedaytime sphere in whi the worst offenders of official taste could becontained ...; and second, by encouraging a type of domestic drama thatavoided the pitfalls of race, ethnicity, and troublesome gender-related andsexual material, along with over-stimulating adventure, by focusing on the“a verage American family.”

JWT was producing at least fiveshows in ea year’s top ten, all from Hollywood, using its unparalleledaccess to Hollywood talent procured, by whatever means, by Danker and hisassociates

Out of this cacophonyemerged a message pied up by both sides of the Atlantic and reprinted inthe major papers: “All Titanic passengers safe; towing to Halifax.” Editors ofthe London Times and The New York Times were appalled to learn the nextday that the message was false, and they blamed the amateurs formanufacturing su a cruel hoa

So I want to explore how the terms of radio listening itself wereconstructed, contested, and thus invented in the 1920s, by programmers andby listeners.

Not only was ildrearingliterature big business, but the state had taken a special interest in the topicof disturbed youth, using agencies su as the Continuing Commiee on thePrevention and Control of Delinquency and the Children’s Bureau tomonitor juvenile crimes.

More typically, the television set took the place of the piano.

Televisionwas the great family minstrel that promised to bring Mom, Dad, and thekids together; at the same time, it had to be carefully controlled so that itharmonized with the separate gender roles and social functions of individualfamily members.

the rising programme license fees by the mid-1950s aractedthe major Hollywood studios into telefilm production, forming the industryrelationships between programme producers and TV networks whi largelyendure today in American television.

NBC and CBS, with theAmerican Broadcasting Company (ABC) and DuMont television networksas also-rans in a two-and-a-half network economy. e DuMont networkwent out of business in 1955 while the ABC network struggled through TV’sfirst decade to ai eve a weaker, though competitive position by 19

First, they had to create ashared format for hypertext documents, whi they called hypertext markuplanguage (HTML).

he development ofmodern media and the development of computers—begin around the sametime.