faithisnotsimplyrightbelief,buttrueislam,orthetotalsurrenderofthehumanwillanddestinyto God.

Thetwogreatpowersheremeant,andwhichprovidethecontextforboththeChristianandIslamicviewoftheworldandofhumanhistory,aretheDivineandtemporalpowers

many Germans understood the conflict between the Habsburg and Ottoman Empires to be a struggle not between two polit-ical powers but between the forces of Christendom and that of its archenemy, Islam. In the most severe terms used, it was a struggle between Christ and Anti- Christ, between God and the devil.

That Islam recognised some aspects of Christian teaching on Jesus but rejected the fundamentals of Sonship and Incarnation resulted in seeing Islam not as a separate faith but rather as a Christian heresy and therefore a teaching which was as threatening as it was deceiving. Mu.hammad and the Qur’ān dwelled on God but they rejected the human manifestation of God, the very nature of reciprocity between God and man. Muslims believed in Jesus but not in a life which participated in Christ. In denying the crucifixion, Muslims denied not just an event but the ontological necessity of the ultimate expression of God’s love.

then why are the Son and Spirit, in that they are Son and Spirit, particularities of the Father, rather than each of them being Father and the Father a particularity to them

he ends on the complex issue of Jesus’ divinity, commenting that even those within the same sect of Christianity cannot agree on the nature of Jesus’ divinity. To believe in this doctrine, one needs unqualified submission, which Al- Jāh.iz argues is probably the only way one can believe in the divinity of Christ.

He did not leave the Jews a feast, without abolishing it; a Sabbath, without infringing it; a circumcision without gently rejecting it; a sacrifice, without forbidding it; an altar, without despoiling it; and a priest, without calling him adulterous and profligate.

In both schools, a defining feature of their theological refutations of Christianity was concerned not so much with Christianity as a unified set of beliefs, but rather with the Trinity and the Incarnation, the uniting of the divine and the human in Christ.

In this chapter we shall analyse how certain concepts continued to drive mutual percep-tions. This period of history takes us from the eighth/ninth centuries to the sixteenth century, and our focus is primarily on the Christians of the Latin West and Muslims across many parts of the East

represents a stunning reversal in American race politics.