Twenty-one year old Mehmed had an army of over 80,000 men, against the 8,000 defending the city. But the Byzantines had the Walls of Theodosius, which had repelled every attacker since their building in 413.
This is interesting that the dramatic imbalance in forces, showing how a small defending army relied on massive, historic walls to withstand a much larger invading army.
This is not an entirely inaccurate designation, because there was not only a recovery from the cultural chaos and economic disaster caused by the plague, but an explosion of learning and creativity throughout the Europe.
The sentence shows that Europe didn’t just recover after the plague, but also experienced major growth in learning and creativity.
In 1376 he executed several thousand officials convicted of corruption.
I wonder how executing thousands f officials affected the government and the people at the time.
A young orphan, Zhu Yuanzhang, who had lost his entire family to plague and famine, was sheltered at a White Lotus monastery around 1345.
It’s interesting that Zhu Yuanzhang became a future emperor survived the plague and famine as an orphan.
The Church, which was unable to either explain or prevent the plague, lost a lot of its prestige and power.
I find it interesting that the plague made people lose faith in the church because it couldn’t stop or explain the disease.
As I mentioned in the last chapter, the heirs of Genghis Khan's empire continued its expansion after his death in 1227.
An interesting point is that Genghis Khans empire didn’t stop growing after his death. It kept expanding under his heirs.
By 1206 an assembly of the tribes acclaimed him as the Khan and united under his banner.
I wonder how he was able to convince so many different tribes to unite and choose him as their leader.
The repression of the Albigensians or Cathars ("pure ones") in southern France was an internal Christian crusade aimed at ridding the faith of people who were understood not only as heretics, but as agents of Satan who could damn entire communities.
It’s interesting that this crusade was Christians attacking other Christians just because they believed differently.
After another major military failure in 1214 and over a decade of high taxes, fines, and seizures of baronial lands (the Robin Hood story is based on this period), John's subjects, the Norman-descended Barons, rebelled against his abuses and forced him to sign the Magna Carta in 1215.
After another major military failure in 1214 and over a decade of high taxes, fines, and seizures of baronial lands (the Robin Hood story is based on this period), John's subjects, the Norman-descended Barons, rebelled against his abuses and forced him to sign the Magna Carta in 1215.
Born in Ifriqiya (Tunisia), he was raised in a Muslim family and initially practiced as a physician and merchant, becoming fluent in Arabic, Greek, Latin, and possibly other langua
I find it interesting that he grew up in Tunisia and the he learned several languages and skills as well.
The Pope promised not only land and wealth, but the remission of sins for men who would take on the quest.
It’s interesting to see that the pope promised land, wealth, and forgiveness of sins to men who joined the quest.
About one and a half million people lived in an agrarian, feudal economy of England and Wales in 1066, with possibly three quarters of a million more in Scotland and Ireland.
I wonder why so many people in 1066 lived as farmers in the feudal system across England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland.
Known locally as "ukku" or "urukku" in Tamil, it was forged using a crucible process involving iron ore, charcoal, and glass flux that was heated in sealed clay crucibles to produce ingots with 1.5–2% carbon content, enabling superplasticity and high impact hardness.
It amazes me how it was made by heating iron, glass, and charcoal together. I would never think to use that.
Their missionary work helped expand the Byzantine Church into Bulgaria, Serbia, and later Russia.
It’s interesting how their missionary work helped spread the Byzantine Church’s religion, alphabet, and culture int Bulgaria, Serbia, and later Russia.
There had been stories of a large island dating back to at least 330 BCE, when a Greek explorer named Pytheas had described his travels.
I wonder what do Pytheas’s travels in 330 BCE reveal about early exploration?
The foes of Charles the Fat and his uncle and predecessor, Charles the Bald, that helped end the Carolingian dynasty were the Vikings, a seafaring people originally from Scandinavia.
It’s crazy to see that the Vikings didn’t just raid but they reshaped Europe and helped bring an end tot he powerful dynasty.
Because many of these merchants operated in family or clan based businesses, informal transfers based on trust, called Hawala, were also widely used.
Something I found interesting about this is how Hawala shows how early global trade relied on trust long before banks even existed.
By 750, the Arab rulers of the Umayyad Caliphate had spread their empire and Islam beyond the Arabian peninsula, to Iberia and North Africa in the west, the edge of the Byzantine Empire in the north, and as far ass the Indus River Valley in the east.
It’s interesting how by 750, the Umayyad Caliphate had created one of the largest empires in history.
Decades of war with the Byzantine Empire had weakened the Sasanian military, and its subjects were tired of high taxes and Zoroastrian religious dominance in regions with Jewish or Christian majorities.
I wonder what factors weakened the Sasanian Empire before outside attacks?
Muhammad's uncle and his wealthy wife provided some protection
Yes, His uncle names Abu Talib and his wife Khadijah protected him at first.
After consolidating the north by 588, Wen's army of over 500,000 troops invaded the south and captured Nanjing in 589.
I find it impressive that Wen was able to unite the north and then launch such a massive army to capture Nanjing.
The Gothic War followed a successful campaign in 533 and 534 against the Vandals in Africa.
I think it’s interesting that the Gothic War came right after the victories over the vandals.
After 476, when Odoacer conquered Ravenna, the new king recognized the Pope's authority over spiritual matters. H
I wonder why did the new king recognize the popes authority over spiritual matters after conquering Ravenna in 476?
The Huns reached their peak under Attila (c. 406-453), who ruled from 434 until his death
It’s interesting that the Huns became so powerful under Attila ruling a vast and fearsome empire.
The first half-century of the empire was anything but peaceful, as we have seen. After the conclusion of the Jewish Revolt, things calmed down a bit.
I was thinking why was the first half century of the empire so chaotic before things finally settled down after the Jewish revolt?
When he returned to Rome in 27 BCE, he was awarded the title Augustus (revered one), but he refused the invitation to rule like a king.
It’s interesting that Augustus was given so much power but still refused to be called a king. Even when he basically ruled like one.
The senators, believing that their violence was justified to remove the "tyrant", called themselves "Liberators" and paraded through the Forum with their bloody daggers raised high.
I find it interesting that the senators thought killing Caesar made them the good guy. Calling themselves liberators as they marched proudly with their bloody daggers.
At sixteen, after completing three years of study with Aristotle, prince Alexander governed Macedon while the king was away on military campaigns; and he occasionally campaigned himself.
I wonder how did Alexanders time studying with Aristotle help him when he started governing Macedon at just sixteen years old?
At then very end, when the hero and villain are about to engage in single combat, Ravana reveals to Rama what he had not known, that Rama is an avatar (incarnation) of the high god Vishnu.
It is interesting that right before the final battle, te villain Ravana tells Rama that he’s actually god Vishnu in human form.
After the death of Alexander, the Jewish territory of Judea fell under Seleucid rule.
I find it interesting that after Alexander died, the Jewish land of Judea was taken over by the Seleucids. It shows how his empire broke into different parts.
Cicero blended Greek ideas such as Stoicism, Epicureanism, and Platonism with Roman practicality.
It is interesting that Cicero mixed Greek ideas with Roman thinking to make new ways of life.
Their brilliant general Hannibal, raised during the previous war and hating Rome, besieged and sacked the Roman ally Sagantum on the Iberian coast in 219 BCE.
This is interesting because it shows how Rome stayed strong through challenges.
A Latin League helped protect the city until 340 BCE, when Rome defeated its former allies and dissolved the alliance.
This quote shows how Rome stayed strong through challenges. Even after being attacked they kept getting more powerful overtime.
Like the Gita, the story develops themes of dharma, bhakti, loyalty, and a battle between good and evil.
It is interesting how even in a big fight between good and evil hero’s can have hidden purpose.
He believed that fire was the fundamental component of the world, and famously wrote, "No man ever steps in the same river twice."
I wonder why did Heraclitus believe that change and conflict were important for the world instead of stability?
The Mauryan Empire helped spread the tenets of Buddhism (which we'll discuss shortly), especially under its third emperor, Ashoka (304-232 BCE). After fighting an especially bloody battle in the eastern kingdom of Kalinga that killed hundreds of thousands, Ashoka embraced nonviolence and Buddhism.
It amazes me how Ashoka changed after the war and started supporting Buddhism. It’s shows how even leaders can change their actions and beliefs after seeing the effects of violence.
Cyrus conquered Babylon bloodlessly and became a sort of patron of the Jews.
It’s interesting how Cyrus didn’t fight to take Babylon and still gained the support.
After a conflict they nearly lose, according to the Biblical story, the tribes are united under Saul, the first king, in 1020 BCE.
It is crazy to me how these tribes were mostly independent at first and only united when Saul became king.
Wild silkworms, which were abundant in the region, were fed on mulberry leaves and then their cocoons were harvested and boiled to extract silk threads
I wonder how they figured out boiling cocoons would give them silk threads?
While there is no clear evidence of palaces, kings, or warfare, Caral had monuments and sunken plazas that seem to have been used for community rituals.
I believe it’s interesting that Caral didn't have clear rulers or places but still built big monuments and irrigation systems. It shows that their society was more about team work.
The Indus culture established a uniform system of weights and seals, which helped standardize trade.
This is cool because the Indus had standard system of weights and seals. It shows how organized their trades were.
Egypt's farmers grew wheat, lentils, chickpeas, and flax (for linen). An kin-based elite emerged in early communities like Hierakonpolis, in upper Egypt
It is so intresting how farming wasn’t just about food but also about making materials like linen from flax.
However, as tin became scarce, there was additional incentive to find a way to work with the abundant iron ore.
Does the shortage of tin explain why iron became more popular?
The army of Ramesses III managed to turn them away; their attacks were most effective in the Levant where Canaanite cities like Ugarit and Hazor were destroyed, in Cyprus, and in Anatolia where the Hittite Empire collapsed about 3,200 years ago.
It’s impressive that the Ramesses lll’s army was able to stop the attackers.
A diplomatic marriage between Ramesses and a Hittite princess sealed the treaty and strengthened ties between the former rivals.
I think its interesting that Ramesses married a Hittite princess to make peace.
It is harder and holds a sharper edge than copper alone, which makes bronze useful for both practical tools such as knives, axes, plows, and sickles;
I believe it’s cool that bronze is harder and sharper than copper. It makes it really useful for tools like knives, axes, and plows.
Possibly the oldest is called "The Instructions of Shuruppak". Written in Sumerian about 4,600 years ago, it is structured as the advice of a father named Shuruppak, a mythical sage and ruler, to his son Ziusudra (hero of the Sumerian flood myth).
It is surprising that people wrote advice for their kids 4,600 years ago. It shows even back in the day they wanted to teach their children how to live.
Although these agricultural innovations spread partly by the migration of people and partly through cultural exchange (people learning things from neighboring cultures), there was a significant amount of migration.
This is interesting it shows how farming spread both by people learning from neighbors and migration. This also shows how connected and mobile people were even in ancient times.