The form of argument can be shown by the use of symbols. For each argument form, there is a corresponding statement form, called a corresponding conditional, and an argument form is valid if and only if its corresponding conditional is a logical truth.
Corresponding conditional
his can be done by giving a counter example of the same form of argument with premises that are true under a given interpretation, but a conclusion that is false under that interpretation.
counter argument
The validity of an argument depends, however, not on the actual truth or falsity of its premises and conclusion, but solely on whether or not the argument has a valid logical form
The validity of an argument is not based on the truth or falsity of the argument but that it follows the logical form
A deductive argument is one that, if valid, has a conclusion that is entailed by its premises.
Deductive argument
An argument has one or more premises but only one conclusion.
an argument may have one or more premises but only one conclusion
Conversely, formal arguments are studied in formal logic (historically called symbolic logic, more commonly referred to as mathematical logic today) and are expressed in a formal language.
Formal logic
Informal arguments as studied in informal logic, are presented in ordinary language and are intended for everyday discourse.
informal arguments
while in an inductive argument, they are thought to provide reasons supporting the conclusion's probable truth
inductive argument
In a typical deductive argument, the premises guarantee the truth of the conclusion,
deductive argument
he general form of an argument in a natural language is that of premises (typically in the form of propositions, statements or sentences) in support of a claim: the conclusion.
The general form of an argument
You will be in greater conscious control of your own mind and thoughts. It will be harder for advertising, political propaganda, peer pressure, scams and confidence tricks, or other forms of psychological manipulation to affect you. When your actions or motives are questioned, you will be much better able to explain yourself effectively and persuasively. You will be able to understand difficult, complex, and challenging ideas a lot easier, and with a lot less anxiety. You will be able to understand things in a more comprehensive and complete way. You will be better able to identify the source of your problems, whether practical or personal, and better able to handle or solve those problems. You will feel much less frustrated or upset when you come across something that you do not understand. You will be better able to plan for the future, compete for better paying or more prestigious jobs, and to gather political power. You will find it easier to stand up to governments, employers, and other authorities when they act unjustly. Tragedies, bad fortune, stress, and other problems in life will be easier to deal with. You will find it easier to understand other people’s feelings and other people’s points of view, and you will be better able to help prevent those differences from becoming conflicts. You will get much more pleasure and enjoyment from the arts, music, poetry, science, and culture. You may even enjoy life more than you otherwise would.
The ways in which grounding your beliefs in reason will make the quality of the your inner life better
But if you have accepted your beliefs from these sources, and not done your own thinking about them, then they are not your beliefs, and you are not truly thinking your own thoughts.
We get our thoughts from special influences in our life as we grow up, but once grown we need to begin thinking and believing for ourselves or they're not our own thoughts but someone else's.
Normally, bad quality thinking happens when your mind has been ‘possessed’,
Bad quality thinking happens when your mind has been "possessed." Or by other people and made to serve their purposes instead of their own.
Philosophical questions are often very difficult questions, and they demand a lot of effort and consideration and time.
Philosophical questions are often very difficult and demand a lot of effort, consideration, and time
nking, in this way of ‘thinking’ about thinking, is an event
Thinking about thinking is an event
Thinking is a first-order phenomenological insight: it’s a bit like knowing what the colour ‘red’ looks like, or knowing the taste of an orange.
Thinking is a first-order phenomenological insight
Some may wish to draw a distinction between thinking and feeling, including sense perception, emotional experience, or even religious faith.
A distinction between thinking and feeling