forbidden triad

like persuasion

• power and risk taking
• power and emotion
• power and empathhy
• power and self-satisfaction
• power and social distance

strong drive to have power over others

sociometric hierarchy - sociometric start ->> most liked -outcasts -> least liked -isolates -> those with few connections -average members -> moderately liked

• mutual support and loyalty were higher than within the general survivor network
• such cliques can stabilize relationships within the group but may also be members from the rest of the community

• high status individuals gneerally shape the decision-making processes and garner respect for their contribution to group stability
• sociometric start -> most well-liked members

• clarifying role requirmeent
• separating conflicting roles
• guidelines for role priority
• maximizing role fit -encouraging positive interpersonal relationships

• doubt
• ineffective performance
• questioning one's competence
• hindering the ability to perform confidently
• associated with fatigeue

• lead to tension and distress
• individuals try to balance conflicting expectations
• can impact their performance and satisfaction in all roles involved
• can cause back pain, sleep issues, dizziness and digestive problems

• dissatisfaction, decreased mood, lower levels of happiness

also group stability social belonging and support

percolation

Extraversion- introversion and neuroticism - emotional stability

Includes an optional postdrawing interrogation phase with 60 questions about the drawings.

improved diagnostic accuracy

seen as unreliable

Thematic apperception test

Interpreting individualized responses to uncover personality processes (needs, motives, conflicts).

Derived from factor analysis of trait terms in language. Evolutionary basis: Traits linked to survival and reproductive success. Popular personality assessments include the NEO-PI-R and NEO-FFI.

underlying factors

observable behavior

Domain-specific and not a global trait. Mediates knowledge and action. Development of tailored self-efficacy scales for specific domains.

and vicarious reinforcementt -> learning through observing others

Reliable and predictive of variables like success, health, and academic achievement.

Discrepancy between self and ideal sorts indicates adjustment level.

The self-concept as central to behavior and adjustment.

Emphasizes subjective experience, personal worldview, and self-concept.

Vaillant's hierarchy of defense mechanisms

includes conscience and ego ideal

to assess the patient's functioning in areas like orientation, memory, thought, feeling and judgment, behavior and speech and communication

• provides an objective global index of cognitive functioning

• promising but requires more independenant validation and high false positives
• items validated using three groups: substance abuser, non-abusers and abusers instructed to fake good

• a 10 item test developed by WHO
• extensively validated and translated into multiple languages

a five item questionnaire

scores on a 7-point scale, a score of 2+ indicates potential acohol problems

a single yes suggests a possible disorder

• alcohol abuse : diagnosed if an individual meets one or more of four functional impact criteria related to drinking
• alcohol dependance: diagnosed if three of more of seven criteria are met, indicating a more chronic and severe condition

measures delayed recall for visual stimuli

spatial processing and visuospatial working memory

basic computational skills and working memory

efficiency and rule-following

tests visual search, sustained attention and encoding

ANAM4 TBI battery

• includes a screening module wtih 12 subtests
• offers two parallel, psychometrically equivalent forms

• measures compensation -> higher scores = less recovery

• assesses manipulative speed and accuracy
• finger tapping, pegboard performance, line tracing
• motor dexterity, coordination, lateralized brain damage

and children with traumatic brain injuries

• measures planning and foresight

9

• combines perceptual activity with motor responses, always involving a spatial component causes: spatial confusion, perceptual deficiencies, attention difficulties, motivational problems, apraxias ( dysfunction in directing/executing complex motor acts

non standardized

• includes delayed memory tasks ( free recall) and recognition tasks ( recognizing material) to differentiate between storage and retrieval problems
• optional subtests for evaluating working memory ( verbal and combined verbal/visual working memory)

name words from a semantic category

useful for confirming Alzheimer's disease diagnosis

• could contain errors of omission (failure to respond) and commission ( incorrect resposnes)
• sensitive to hyperactivity, schizophrenia and brain damage

Right-hand touch difficulties may suggest issues in the left parietal lobe (postcentral gyrus). Right ear auditory issues may point to lesions in the left temporal lobe (superior portion). Right visual defects may indicate problems in the left occipital lobe.

• differentiates neurodegenrative disorder like ALzheimer, Parkinson and Huntington -effective for patients with Multiple Sclerosis and differentiaties frontotemporal dementia (FTD) from Alzheimer's and vascular dementia

• three sets of scores : current, past and change
• some content validity but limited research

provides reliable assessments and normative data

• by damage to occipital association cortex , involving the parietal and temporal lobes
• linked to right-sides lesions

and complex shapes

-located in the upper rear temporal lobe

located in the left premotor cortex

slow, labored, telegrammatic speech

• provides intonation patterns of speech
• right-side lesions can result in monotone speech

• disrupts language comprehension or productions

• language processing -> speech, reading, writing, arithmetic -involves widely separated cortical and subcortical structures

• dirsupted pituitary function( abnormal food or water intake for example)
• dysregulation of temperature, blood pressure

often due to severe head injuries

connected to the limbic system, indirectly influencing the autonomic nervous system - regulates bodily functions crucial for survival - small structure beneath the thalamus - exerts control over the pituitary gland, modulating endocrine functions

-could not form new long-term memories post-surgery

• regulates emotions (fear,agression)
• acquires and processes memory
• contains pleasure centers ( nucleus accumbens)

and memory

learning motor tasks

retained pre-surgery long-term memories and short-term memory

essential for consolidating short-term into long-term memories

isolated consciousness between hemispheres when severed

• cerebrum -> comprises the left and right cerebral hemispheres connected by the corpus callosum
• responsible for thought, perception, imagination, judgment and decision-making -a large bundle of subcortical nerve fibers
• connects homologous brain regions across hemispheres, allowing integration of functions

• symptoms include forgetfulness, difficulty concentrating, vague speech, wekaness and balance problems
• onset is often gradual and only recognized retrospectively

consequences of cerebrovascualr accident: - effects depend on infarct size and location - severe cases may cause paralysis or loss of speech - multi infarct dementia

A circular arterial system at the brain's base ensures blood flow even if an artery is blocked

requires substantial oxygen and glucose delivered by blood flow

composed of gray matter, white matter, glial cells, CSF and blood vessels contain approximately 100 billion neurons connected by complex networks, enabling electrochemical communication

cushions and reduces brain weight to minimize pressure and injury

• bridge between psychology and medicine
• assess and adress isues such as substance abuse, dementia screening and cognitive impairments

Neuropsychological issues arise from head injuries, learning disabilities, memory impairments, attention difficulties, and language disorders

as diversity may reduce competition and improve teamwork

communication, collaboration, conflict resolution

Negative attitudes are linked to behaviors like avoiding collaboration, dismissing others' opinions, and insisting on one's own views even when disagreements arise.

group-level discussions is eliminated

groups formed by pooling individual ideas

group productivity exceeds individual productivity

Requires careful conceptualization to determine what constitutes effective performance.

and aptitude tests

• group discussion, in-basket, interviews

efficient, cost-effective, and interpretable

NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised (NEO-PI-R) and NEO-PI-3. Five-Factor Personality Inventory (FFPI).

Strong interest inventory

Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF): Based on factor analysis, useful for normal and abnormal personality evaluation. California Psychological Inventory (CPI): Derived from the MMPI, measures traits like responsibility and tolerance. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI): Based on Carl Jung’s personality type theory, used widely in corporate settings.

• fosters mutual reliance, collaboration and reduces prejudice

Unprejudiced individuals were found to feel guilty when they exhibited stereotypical responses, while prejudiced individuals did not show similar feelings of guilt.

• reduced status indicators and disinhibition encourage self-discolsure and intimacy
• positive virtual interaction can build confidence for future offline relationships

• personalization of outgroup members helps break stereotypes and foster individual connections

of majority

tourism-based contact

Pettigrew's recommendation: A fifth condition for the contact hypothesis is opportunities for friendship, enabling self-disclosure and bonding

-must be with structure and copperation

• cognitive processes can shift toward inclusive identities
• groups can learn to respond positively through targeted interactions

• competition, differences in power, norms and negative emotions can fuel intergroup hostilities
• distinguishing between us and them leads to rejection and animosity

• brain regions for social cognition show no activity
• areas associated with disgust are activated
• groups described as animalistic provoke greater hostility

• low-status members and those with threatened self-esteem exhibit more extreme biases
• favoring ingroups enhances self-esteem, though this effect is inconsistent
• derogating outgroups may boost self-esteem when aligned with group norms

• Characteristics of Dehumanization: Denial of human uniqueness (e.g., culture, moral standards, rationality).
• Denial of emotional depth (e.g., refined emotions like guilt, admiration).
• Association with impurity and disgust.

factors promoting moral exclusion: - histories of societal devaluation - norms emphasizing authority and obedience

advocates for the destruction of outgroups through violence, fueled by moral exclusion

Even mild negativity is often unconsciously expressed through nonverbal actions, nervousness, or social awkwardness.

• more typical of higher-status groups looking down on lower-status groups

• common in lower-status groups feeling threatened by higher-status groups

• high warmth but low competence
• felt for groups that evoke sympathy without blame

• low warmth and low competence
• directed at groups viewed as responsible for their failings

• low warmth but high competence
• felt toward groups perceived as successful, but threatening

• high warmth and high competence
• rarely occurs but arises when the outgroup is seen positively and their accomplishments do not harm the ingroup

• Self-fulfilling prophecies: Stereotypes shape interactions that reinforce the stereotype.
• Memory bias: Stereotype-consistent information is remembered better than inconsistent information.

• Positive ingroup behaviors are described abstractly (e.g., “They are kind”), while similar outgroup actions are described concretely (e.g., “They helped once”). -Negative behaviors are described abstractly for the outgroup (e.g., “They are bad people”) and concretely for the ingroup (e.g., “They made a mistake”).

competiotion andn cooperation also plays a role

ingroup favoritism is generally stronger than outgroup hostility

The mere perception of belonging to distinct groups is enough to prompt favoritism toward the ingroup.

• even minimal group distinctions lead to intergroup hostility

While humans developed altruism and cooperation, these traits were primarily reserved for ingroup members and sustained by hostility toward outgroups

• Evolution favored cooperation within groups, leading humans to become a social species. -Groups often competed for resources, leading to territorial disputes and violence. -Outsiders posed significant threats, leading to evolved mechanisms for distinguishing insiders from outsiders. -External threats from outgroups promoted unity within groups. -Cooperation was vital for survival and was reinforced by reciprocal altruism among group members. -While humans developed altruism and cooperation, these traits were primarily reserved for ingroup members and sustained by hostility toward outgroups.

• mennonites and Amish -> avoid conflict and strive for peace
• gangs -> aggressive -> young girls -> relational aggression

People in face cultures don't typically take matters into their own hands but rely on the group to deal with the situation

-Aggression is less common here and is more characteristic of economically prosperous, individualistic countries

• maintain personal or group honor
• seen in rural economies, where civil authorities are weak

minor issues lead to major violence

-Scapegoating provides an outlet for frustration and is more likely when groups experience prolonged negative conditions. -Extreme forms of scapegoating can lead to genocide or violence against oppressed groups, with minorities sometimes turning against each other rather than confronting more powerful groups.

pain, threats, stressors that increase arousal

tendency to support or oppose group based hierarchies; individuals with high SDO are more likely to endorse the idea that some groups should dominate others

The dominant group justifies this power imbalance, claiming it’s natural, whereas the subordinate group often resists.

• Group-focused collectivists respond negatively to group-level conflicts, while individualists respond more to personal conflicts (Derlega et al., 2002).
• When social identity is more salient than personal identity, individuals are more likely to engage in competitive behavior towards other groups (Böhm et al., 2013).

tend to communicate in a more antagonistic way

When individuals played, only 6.6% of interactions were competitive, while 36.2% of interactions were competitive when triads played against each other. This figure increased to 53.5% when triads communicated through representatives.

Groups struggle to obtain desired resources while preventing the other group from succeeding leading to conflict - can lead to various societal issues -> class struggles, rebellions, international warfare, racism and organizational conflcits

• also resolved conflicts in unemotional, fact-driven discussion
• cohesive and focused on task success, with no relationships conflict

also force the examination of assumptions, strengths and weaknesses

satisfaction with the mediator depends on how well the mediator performs and the conflict's intensity

Techniques for managing anger include: - counting to ten - calling a timeout - writing concerns down - using humor - groups can minimize anger by developing norms against displaying strong negative emotions or by discussing controversial issues in controlled environments

focusing on compromosing, or reconciling differences - often overlaps with yielding or cooperation

it can either reduce or exacerbate conflict - If messages are hostile or inconsistent, they may escalate conflict. - However, if communication fosters cooperation, trust, and unity, it can help resolve conflict.

• people may perceive criticisms as personal attacks

• seek solutions that benefit everyone and use objective criteria to guide decisions, rather than relying on pressure or self-interest

prefer to make concession to build rapport

• look for solutions that benefit all parties
• emphasizes cooperation for long-term success

involves bargaining or compromise

or de-escalation: hostility may eventually decrease

• loss of control (calm -> shit into negative emotional exchanges)
• negative reciprocity -> retaliating worse when treated badly)
• anger's function -> communicate displeasure, tool to influence others, reframe situations from cooperative to conflictual, expression of angers perceived as contempt -contagion of anger
• anger and onlince interaction -> people may less restrain themselves than in face to face

anger tend to escalate conflicts, making thzm more negative. It often results in verbal abuse or physical aggression

The fear of retaliation plays a critical role. If retaliation is a realistic concern, parties may avoid using threats leading to less itnense conflict

soft tactics: ( promises, rewards, discussions, negotiation) are typically used in the ealry stages of a conflict. These tactics are indirect, rational and often cooperative hard tactics: are more direct, contentious, and unilateral often used as conflicts escalate. These tactics can provoke a defensive response leading to further conflict.

• Distrust makes it difficult to rebuild cooperative relationships.
• Competitors often fail to recognize cooperative or altruistic behaviors, creating further conflict.

• Misinterpret cooperative behaviors as competition.
• Are biased toward information that confirms distrust.
• Sometimes deliberately misrepresent their intentions.

people often reject options framed as demands rather than suggestions

people seek information that reinforces their stance (confirmation bias)

• individuals become more committed to their positions
• arguments intensified, involving other group members

• conflicts between liked individuals increase tension, but between disliked ones, open hostility arises
• agreement with enemies or disagreement with friends create psychological discomfort

often leads to exclusion, ostracism, disruption within groups - common both in adults and children - productive conflict resolutions improves group cohesion and understanding - ineffective management of self-serving behaviors or dissent can lead to negative perceptions

may clash over decision-making processes, role assignments or task completion methods

and provoke negative reactions toward dissenters

• when group members estimate their responsability, their combined percentages often exceed 100%

• competitive men paired ith older women won more money
• competitiveness was unrelated to stake size

groups with more individualist are less cooperative and more conflict-prone

• men cooperate more in all-male groups, while women cooperate more in sharing contexts
• women's behavior is influenced by attractiveness and likability of their partners

-often engage in abrasive behavior leading to higher conflict levels -Cooperators adjust their behavior to the group, becoming less cooperative if surrounded by individualists - competitors maintain their confrontational style

positive reciprocity fosters cooperation negative reciprocity escalates conflict, as individuals retaliate against harm more strongly than they return kindness

to cross this person again, - labels also play a big role

• cooperative choices benefit both parties
• competitive choices may maximize individual gain, but harm overall group success

positive competition: - motivation, excitement, and pride in controlled scenarios like sports

reasons for conflict: - diverse goals, interests and perspectives among members - competition for resources and power - emotional and interpersonal discord within groups

• minor disagreements can be resolved easily, but deeper misalignments lead to the conflict cycle

• developed a comprehensive list of ten options, ranging from inaction to invasion
• prepared deetailed backup strategies for each course of action
• coordinated efforts to ensure smooth implementation
• communication
• fine tuned the chosen strategy
• ensure clarity of roles and reponsabilities

• discouraged conformity and prioritized critical thinking
• sought feedback from younger, lower-level staff for unbiased perspectives
• consulting unbiased external feedback and contingency plans for failure

• rushed decision under stress or ambiguity
• ingroup favoritism, stereotyping, and centralized leadership

directive leaders: can enhance outcomes if they guide processes rather than control results

• Task cohesion: improves decision-making, as groups focus on obejctives
• Interpersonal cohesion: More symptoms of groupthink,as relationships overshadow task evaluation

criticism or marginalization of those who voice doubts

• group cohesion -> high levels of bonding can suppress dissent
• sutrcutral fault in the group -> group insulation from outside opinions, leadership style discouraging open critiaue, lack of standarduzed decision making procedures
• provocative situational context -> high stress or external threats

align with perceived prototypical positions of their group, which may also shift toward greater extremes for differentiation

generate more arguments supporting the dominant view, leading members to adopt more extreme positions consistent with these arguments

adjust their views to align with the group's norms, striving to present themselves in a socially favorable way

Participants decide the minimum acceptable probability of success beofre recommending risky courses of action. Group discussions often shift these thresholds

depending on the scenario and initial positions

feeling less responsable

group decision-making can intensify risky choices. Contrary to the assumption that groups moderate individual decision, they often amplify them

ways to avoid the bias: - experienced leadership - extended discussion - structured approaches (opinions, adovacy, new topic) -group decisions support systems (shares information collectively, tools for analysis communication and decision making) - introducing dissent - diversity of opinions -

bias is stronger when: - when members seek closure - when problems are complex or lack clear right or wrong answers bias is weaker: - under time pressure - when there are few alternatives to consider

The tendency of groups to commit these decisional sins is stronger than in individuals, as groups are even more susceptible to these errors

• groups have greater informational resources and the ability to process information more effectively
• groups can detect errors in reasoning better than individuals
• members often find group decision more satisfying, particularly when consensus-building methods are used

• negative effects of meeting that are seens as ineffective, such as participants experiencing anxiety, depression and dissatisfaction if meetings aren't viewed as productive -effectiveness of meetings and their drawbacks, such as how people often view them as time-wasters, especially when they don't lead to decisions or solutions. It references research on how ineffective meetings lead to frustration, stress, and dissatisfaction.

can cause internal politics and conformity

• also grandstanding