assimilate
- also leveling, and sharpening
- also due to poor communication skills -> including summarizing, giving directions and defending opinions
272 Matching Annotations
- Nov 2024
-
viewer.athenadocs.nl viewer.athenadocs.nl
-
-
Groups are forgetful. Whereas the collective memory in groups is higher, and information retrieval is more successful, individuals have better memory for information that they process more deeply. In groups a loss of information can result from social loafing or from the complexity of group setting (complex social situations don’t allow for people to remember well).
- Groups perform poorly when trying to recall disorganized information, even though they perform similarly to nominal groups when recalling organized information. -group memory improves when members **reminisce together, but a written record is necessary
-
information exchange and information processing,
group members exchange large amounts of information during discussions (e.g., 27 pieces of information in one study). They share ideas, ask for clarifications, and discuss alternatives, which strengthens decision-making by processing information more thoroughly. Forsyth further highlights that active, critical evaluation during group discussions leads to better decision quality.
-
Discussion
group discussion is central to a collective information processing model
-
Consequently, the planning fallacy often occurs when groups underestimate the time, energy, and resources needed to complete their goal successfully
- due to optimism bias -> tendency for people to overestimate the likelihood of positive outcomes and underestimate the likelihood of negative events or obstacles
-
Spending more time on the orientation phase makes groups more effective, especially when members themselves explore their purposes and procedures.
improves decision-making, problem-solving and efficiency
-
To clarify specific and attainable goals, the group needs to review the overall mission, the problems, formulate intended results, and the evaluation criteria to reflect on the performance's quality.
distinguishes between goal clarity (setting specific, attainable goals and reviewing overall mission, problems, results, and evaluation criteria) and goal-path clarity (detailing how to achieve goals, including identifying tasks, roles, responsibilities, decision-making processes, and setting deadlines and milestones).
-
(goal clarification
The quote from Yogi Berra (“If you don’t know where you’re going, you might not get there”) is included, emphasizing the importance of clarity in decision-making.
-
idealized, inspirational, intellectual, and individualized consideration.
- idealized : leaders act as ethical role models and express their values clearly
- inspirational motivation: leaders articulate an appealing vision of the future and encourage followers with high standards
- intellectual stimulation: leaders challenge assumptions and encourage innovative thinking
- individualized consideration: leaders provide personalized support, coaching and development for their followers
-
Lastly, there will be an increase in the number of females rising to leadership positions
due to their transformational leadership style which is seen as more effective than the others, prejudices diminish and promotional practices become fairer
-
Transformational leadership
- transformational ( motivates and changes individuals at a deeper level)
- transactional ( based on maintaining standards and rewarding compliance)
-
Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire (MLQ
Bass's work draws on Burn's framework to outline the components of transactional, transformational, and laissez-faire leadership
-
transactional leadership
Transactional leadership is about managing and maintaining the status quo rather than inspiring or changing people. - characterized by measures and reluctant doses of change
-
charismatic qualities.
through their personality, spoken words and dynamic presentation style - Max Weber's View on Charisma: The text references Max Weber's view of charismatic leadership, where he describes these leaders as possessing a “divinely inspired gift” that sets them apart from regular leaders.
-
Exemplary followers:
stars
-
Conformist followers
yes people
-
Passive followers
sheep
-
Shared leadership
collective and distributed function
-
Inner group/ingroup – individuals with positive links to the leader. o Leaders which spend more time working with the members, value their inputs and give the members needed resources. o The members in turn work harder, take on more roles, responsibilities and are loyal to group and leader. They view their relationship with the leader as a partnership. • Outer group/outgroup – individuals with less satisfying links to the leader. o Members contribute less to the group and express less loyalty and support for their leader
Research has shown that ingroup members tend to outperform outgroup members due to the positive relationship they share with the leader. However, leaders can improve group dynamics by minimizing the size of the outgroup, ensuring fairness in how they interact with team members, and striving to build stronger relationships across the entire team.
-
difficult groups
require achieving goals or managing difficulties
-
middle-range situations
require balancing tasks and relationships
-
his/her leadership style
motivational style
-
level of readiness of the group.
and developmental stage
-
Situational Leadership Theory
studies indicate that new employees benefit more from task structuring, while experienced or highly educated employees prefer less directive leadership
-
To do so, leaders need to guide the members in their pursuit of their shared objectives, but groups also need leaders who can maintain the interpersonal bonds that sustain the group.
importance of production/results and group member's feelings
-
ndividuals playing an investment-type game preferred a woman as leader during intragroup competition. However, they preferred a man as leader during intergroup competition. People tended to prefer more masculine-looking leaders in situations involving intergroup conflict.
women are preffered as leaders in cooperative tasks, but men in competitive tasks
-
evolutionary mismatch hypothesis
while preferences for older, skilled or experienced leaders were once adaptive, these genetic tendencies may no longer be as functional in modern contexts
-
evolutionary theory
Leadership originated in small, genetically related groups where coordination was vital for survival. Forsyth emphasizes how early leaders facilitated movement, decision-making, conflict resolution, and defense, demonstrating its multifaceted nature.
-
not the same as a dominance contest
Leadership is distinguished from dominance contests. It is cooperative and benefits both leaders and followers, as illustrated by the Yanomamö people, where leadership is based on service to the group rather than physical strength or heredity
-
evolved because having a leadership and followership promoted survival.
increased the representation of genetic material in future generations
-
hence why the popularity of a leader sometimes increases during a crisis.
- dramatic increase in George W. Bush's approval ratings post-9/11 as an example of TMT in action, noting that his promises to address the crisis provided an antidote to citizens' existential fears.
-
they are mortal
such as cultural meaning, organization
-
Caught in this double-bind, women respond by avoiding the leader role, by underperforming as leaders due to the pressure of the negative stereotypes, or by actively resisting the stereotypes and doing what they can to invalidate members’ negative expectations.
These challenges cal lead to underrepresentation of women in leadership positions
-
but it also creates a double standard for women once they achieve a position of leadership. Women, to be evaluated as positively as men, must outperform men.
This bias is more pronounced when women adopt task-oriented leadership styles, seen as inconsistent with their gender role
-
agentic, task-oriented side of leadership
dominance, competition and high energy
-
during intergroup conflic
group members favor leaders who champion the ingroup's strengths and differentiate the ingroup from the outgroup
-
This effect is particularly strong when the members identify with the group.
Results showed that group members who identified strongly with their group preferred leaders matching the group's prototype
-
prototypicality
leaders are idealized representations of the group identity
-
For example, if members are satisfied with a leader, they will attribute characteristics consistent with their ILT’s to the leader even if these are inconsistent with the leader’s actual qualities
biases in evaluations of leaders
-
prototype-matching hypothesis.
group members evaluate leaders based on how closely they match the prototype or standard that the members have for a leader. If a leader fits the follower's ideal leadership qualities, they are more likely to be seen as effective
-
mplicit leadership theories (ILTs)
explains how individuals' beliefs, expectations and assumptions about leadership guide their perception of leaders
-
A lone man in an all-female group often becomes the leader, but a lone female does not have much influence
- gendered dynamics are evident in group leadership
- men are more likely to emerge as leaders in mixed-sex groups
- could be linked to gender expectations and stereotypes about dominance and authority
-
they are less likely to gain such position.
due to structural biases and gender-based expectations
-
Leadership is not limited to any particular culture, ethnic or racial group, however, individuals that are part of a minority group (ethnicity, religion, or race) are less likely to be recognized as group leaders. Minorities are underrepresented in leadership roles in business and organizational settings (and leadership world in general).
- minorities such as African American or Asian American, and Latinos often face discrimination or bias
- the underrepresentation of ethnic minorities in high level leadership is linked to various structural and interpersonal factors such as biases in evaluation and promotion practices
-
Quantity matters only if the comments offered were of high quality. Low quality comments receive low ratings on leadership potential even when offering quantity.
high quality comments are more valuable than simply talking a lot
-
The final type is practical intelligence, the ability to master tasks by identifying solutions and persuading others in their group to follow their directions.
leaders identified in leaderless-group tests
-
Groups prefer leaders who are more intelligent than the average group member, but too great of a discrepancy introduces problems in communication, trust, and social sensitivity. The group members might feel that a too smart leader will have different interests and attitudes as well as not being understandable
The quote "high intelligence may mean skilled leadership, a group prefers to be ‘ill-governed by people it can understand'"
-
As mentioned above the five factors of personality can influence someone’s potential to be a leader, depending on which factors and to what extent they possess them.
agreableness is a weaker predictor of leadership emergence, but may predict effectiveness once someone has become a leader and conscientiousness and extraversion the most
-
“born leaders”, as their genetics create a readiness for the role,
genetic marker rs4950 is associated with leadership
-
Leadership substitutes theory
A cohesive group where members support each other may not need much relationship leadership
-
Sex Differences in Leadership The book describes certain sex differences in leadership styles. Men tend to be more agentic, meaning that they are task-oriented, active, decision-focused, independent, and goal-oriented. They usually describe themselves as influential, powerful, and skilled at the task to be done. On the other hand, women are said to be more communal, meaning that they are helpful to others, warm in relation to others, understanding, and aware of others’ feelings. Women stress the importance of communal qualities, such as being open, fair, responsible, and pleasant, and the value of engaging in relationship maintenance by giving advice, offering assurances, and managing conflict. They strive for minimum conflict. A meta-analytic review that compared the leadership styles adopted by men and women concluded that women performed more relationship-oriented actions in laboratory groups, and also described themselves as more relationship-oriented on questionnaires. The sexes did not differ, however, in studies conducted in organizational settings. Men and women do not consistently and reliably differ in their enactment of interpersonal versus task style in leadership roles.
These differences are often rooted in evolutionary pressures that favored communal tendencies in women an task-focused behavior in men
-
(neutralizers, e.g., when the task is so boring even the best leader cannot help
boring tasks that fail to engage the group members even when the leader is energetic
-
people tend to seek a new one rather than remaining without a leader at all.
more productive with a leader than non
-
Leadership is a goal-orientated process that is adaptive and organizes and motivates group members’
Leadership is based on a cooperative and reciprocal relationship between the leader and followers. It is not about coercion but rather a consensual relationship where group members accept guidance from the leader and work toward common goals.
-
it is about the process rather than the position!
Holding a managerial position does not automatically mean someone is a leader. Many people in formal positions of authority are not effective leaders, and many leaders do not hold formal titles. The process of leadership can occur without any formal position of authority, as leadership is about influence, not just being in charge.
-
More subtle and less perceptible methods constrain the follower’s actions in a way that the followers do not notice it. For example, the messages of the leader appeal to the listeners through emotions and unconscious motivations.
- indirect methods involves setting organizational procedures, persuading through emotional appeals, or leading by personal example. subtle influence: structure and messaging
-
Leadership is the ability to lead others. It aims to guide a group to achieve individual and collective goals by directing, coordinating, motivating, supporting, and unifying their efforts. It is a process of influence achieved through cooperation, reciprocity, and a goal-orientated, generative process
- leadership is primarily about influence, not just authority
- leadership is not a position or title; it's a process that involves guiding others, whether or not the leader holds formal authority
-
Chapter 9: Leadership
- Leadership has existed for thousands of years, with references to leaders and leaderships in ancient Egyptian Hieroglyphics and epic literature
-
-
viewer.athenadocs.nl viewer.athenadocs.nl
-
The equity norm is a social standard that encourages distributing rewards and resources to members in proportion to their inputs. The equity norm is a characteristic of individualism.
based on contributionq (proprotionality)
-
The “ball-toss method” developed by Kipling Williams uses a similar method but with a real ball and real people. The reactions to cyber-ostracism (ostracism happening online) and regular ostracism are the same. Other methods to test the reactions to ostracism are the “life alone” method where people fill a personality-questionnaire and then get told that they are probably going to end up alone and their relationships won’t last. Some researchers also use the method of having the participant meet up with other fake “participants” and then ask them to form groups. All the fake participants are asked to reject the real one.
Ball Toss Method:
A social psychology experiment where participants play a virtual ball-toss game. Unknown to the participant, other "players" are part of the research team and exclude them. Excluded participants report emotional pain, frustration, and distress. "Life Alone" Manipulation:
Participants are told that their personality test results predict a lonely future, suggesting they are likely to be excluded throughout life. This method provokes feelings of sadness, alienation, and hopelessness.
-
-
viewer.athenadocs.nl viewer.athenadocs.nl
-
dissonance.
an uncomfortable psychological state stemming from disagreement with the group
-
Idiosyncrasy credits is an explanation for the leniency groups can, at times, display towards high-status members who violate group norms. It is the hypothetical interpersonal credit earned each time an individual contributes to the group, but this credit decreases each time the individual influences others, makes errors, or deviates from the group’s norms
Hollander proposes that members who first conform to group norms earn credits that allow for later dissent. This concept explains why high-status group members who have contributed to group goals can deviate without severe consequences. Hollander’s approach differs from Moscovici’s in that it emphasizes early conformity to build influence before dissenting, whereas Moscovici focuses on consistent nonconformity. Research indicates that both strategies are effective, with idiosyncrasy credit-based influence being particularly effective in all-male groups
-
Minorities are influential when they argue consistently for their positions and when they remain members in good standing within the group. Minorities should avoid threatening the integrity of the group itself.
Effective minorities balance assertiveness with group cohesion, maintaining credibility and commitment without threatening group unity. Groups are more likely to tolerate dissent if it does not divide the group. In settings where group identity is strong, dissenters must avoid actions that undermine the group’s collective identity to prevent backlash.
-
Minorities are influential when they argue consistently for their positions
consistency
-
Who will conform? Individuals differ in their reactions to the conformity situation. Conformists are commonly more rigid in their thinking and show greater interests in others. Individuals are more likely to conform when they have lower self-esteem or when factors undermine their self-confidence. People will conform in relation to their personal needs. In fact, women use agreement to create consensus and cohesion in their group, while men may disagree with others to gain status or distance themselves from the group. Conformity rates differ between individualistic and collectivistic cultures, but it is overall decreasing. Situational factors that lead to more conformity include important task, public response, size majority, ambiguous task, unstable position, and group cohesion.
Conformists tend to be more rigid in their thinking; their con ventionality, conservative values, and unwillingness to confront authority increase their willingness to accept the majority’s opinion. They let the situation and other people influence their perceptions, opi nions, and outlooks. People who rely on situational cues when making perceptual judgments, self conscious individuals, and those who are continu ally checking to see how well they are fitting into the group or situation (high self-monitors), are more likely to make certain that their actions match the group’s standards. People who conform show a greater interest, overall, in other people. They have a higher need for social approval, are more interpersonally oriented, and are more fearful of social rejection. Factors that undermine self confidence—low self-esteem, incompetence, low intelligence—also increase conformity
-
The punctuated equilibrium model is a group development theory which assumes that groups change gradually over time but that the periods of slow growth are punctuated by brief periods of relatively rapid change. A barometric event is an incident that causes a significant shift in the interpersonal dynamics of the group.
common in groups working with deadlines
-
-
viewer.athenadocs.nl viewer.athenadocs.nl
-
People adopt their group’s norms as personal beliefs, not out of obligation but genuine agreement. For instance, members of health-focused or eco-friendly groups often embrace those values personally. Breaking norms, however, feels uncomfortable, as Stanley Milgram showed when students felt anxious just asking strangers for their seats in an experiment—highlighting how strongly norms shape our actions and emotions.
Norms are not only external standards but can also become internalized, shaping personal values and behaviors. Members of a group adopt norms as part of their own beliefs, leading them to conform out of personal conviction rather than external pressure.
-
Descriptive norms are consensual standards that identify how people typically act, feel, and think in a given situation. What most people (don’t) do. If a person does not obey these norms they are viewed as being unusual. They can have either a desirable effect, or an undesirable boomerang effect.
people often follow others’ behaviors as social proof of correctness.
-
- Oct 2024
-
viewer.athenadocs.nl viewer.athenadocs.nl
-
Norms
interpretation of test scores
-
composite scores
combined scores derived from multiple individual measures or sub-scores to provide an overall summary or total score.
-
psychological test
systematic sample of behavior
-
Psychometrics
' the branch of psychology concerned with evaluation and use of psychological tests the application of statistical and mathematical techniques to psychological test
-