The latest Claude models, if asked to add two numbers together and then queried on how they did it, will still claim to use the standard “carry ones” algorithm for it.

trained to do so.

actually feeling something.

consciousness

By csillag | 22 April, 2013

or instance, you’ll find prominent names like Ryan A. Rossi and Jiliang Tang leading the charge. Rossi’s work on graph analytics and network science and Tang’s extensive research in graph neural networks and representation learning are key pillars in this space. Their research is not only advancing the theoretical frameworks behind GraphRAG but also paving the way for its real-world implementations in areas such as healthcare (e.g., integrating patient records and medical literature for better diagnostics), finance (like fraud detection by connecting disparate transaction data), legal tech (streamlining case research through connected legal precedents), and even e-commerce (delivering smarter, context-aware recommendations).

Linking the energetically unfavorable reaction A → B to a second, favorable reaction B →C will shift the equilibrium constant for the first reaction.

Does a Snickers™ candy bar (65 g, 1360 kJ) pro-vide enough energy to climb from Zermatt (elevation 1660 m) to the top of the Matterhorn (4478 m, Figure Q2–3), or might you need to stop at HÖrnli Hut (3260 m) to eat another one?

>>> e = 75 * 9.8 * (4478 - 1660)
>>> e
2071230.0
>>> e - 1360000
711230.0
>>> e = 75 * 9.8 * (3260 - 1660)
>>> e - 1360000
-184000.0

Assuming that there are 5 × 1013 cells in the human body and that ATP is turning over at a rate of 109 ATP molecules per minute in each cell, how many watts is the human body consuming? (A watt is a joule per second.) Assume that hydrolysis of ATP yields 50 kJ/mole

>>> 5/6.022
0.8302889405513119
>>> m = 5/6.022 * 0.1
>>> p = m * 50 * 10**3
>>> p
4151.44470275656
>>> p /60
69.19074504594268

Calculate the instantaneous velocity of a water molecule (molecular mass = 18 daltons),

>>> v(18)
4.875106836436168e-08
>>> v(18) * 10**-5 * 3600
1.7550384611170207e-09
>>> v(180)
1.5416441439796234e-08
>>> v(15000)
1.6887865466067637e-09

Which form of histidine is required for enzyme activity?

he oxygen consumed during the oxidation of glu-cose in animal cells is returned as CO2 to the atmosphere

he criterion for whether a reaction proceeds spontaneously is ΔG not ΔG°, because ΔG takes into account the concentrations of the substrates and product

If an oxidation occurs in a reaction, it must be accompanied by a reduction

A 10–8 M solution of HCl has a pH of 8.

aTp hydrolysis

As with acetyl CoA, this handle portion very often con-tains a nucleotide (usually adenosine), a curious fact that may be a relic from an early stage of evolution. It is currently thought that the main catalysts for early life-forms—before DNA or proteins—were RNA molecules (or their close rela-tives), as described in Chapter 6. It is tempting to speculate that many of the car-rier molecules that we find today originated in this earlier RNA world, where their nucleotide portions could have been useful for binding them to RNA enzymes (ribozymes)

catabolic

We have previously discussed one way in which an energetically favorable reac-tion can be coupled to an energetically unfavorable reaction, X → Y, so as to enable it to occur. In that scheme, a second enzyme catalyzes the energetically favorable reaction Y → Z, pulling all of the X to Y in the process.

because the overall free-energy change for a set of coupled reac-tions is the sum of the free-energy changes in each of its component steps.

How reaction coupling is used to drive energetically unfavorable reactions

In the course of the chemical reactions that generate order, the cell converts part of the energy it uses into heat. The heat is discharged into the cell’s environment and disorders the surroundings. As a result, the total entropy—that of the cell plus its surroundings—increases, as demanded by the second law of thermodynamics.

Conversely, energetically unfavorable reac-tions with a positive ∆G—such as the joining of two amino acids to form a peptide bond—by themselves create order in the universe. Therefore, these reactions can take place only if they are coupled to a second reaction with a negative∆G so large that the ∆G of the overall process is negative

enzymes cannot change the equilibrium point for reactions. enzymes, likeallcatalysts, speed up theforward and backward ratesofa reaction by thesamefactor. Therefore, for both the catalyzed and the uncatalyzed reactionsshownhere, thenumber ofmolecules undergoing the transition X → Y isequal to thenumber ofmolecules undergoing the transition Y → X when theratioof Y molecules to X moleculesis 3 to 1. inother words, the two reactions reachequilibriumat exactly thesamepoint

Raising the temperature willalsoincrease thenumber ofmolecules withsufficient energy toovercome theactivationenergy needed for a reaction; but inmarked contrast toenzyme catalysis, thiseffect isnonselective, speeding upall reactions

rangeofenergies, distributed asshownon the graph

chemical-bond energ

it takes in energy from its environment in the form of food, or as photons from the sun

in water

Covalent

great time in the course so far so this week we will be focusing on searching and sorting based problems of course these are really really fundamental techniques

hi welcome to the nptel course on getting started with competitive programming this is the first week of the course and this is the very first video so let me

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Why would the complexity of the underlying pro-cess—informational or metabolic—have any effect on the rate of horizontal gene transfer

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Where is the “food,” for example, in the mixture of chemicals (H2S, H2, CO, Mn+, Fe2+, Ni2+, CH4, and NH4+) that spews from a hydrothermal vent?

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A very simple regulatory circuit—a single gene regulating its own expression by the binding of its protein product to its own regulatory DNA

All these biological enterprises are linked, because the genetic information of all living organisms is written in the same language.

there are irregularities that are thought to reflect the action o

Evolution plays freely with quantita-tive features, but it does not readily change the logic of the structure

The vertebrate Genome Is a Product of Repeated duplications

The results, as we see later in the book, reveal an astonishing degree of similarity in the molecular mechanisms that govern insect and vertebrate devel-opment

Drosophila Provide a key to vertebrate development

By a Worm, a Fly, a Fish, a mouse, and a human

The control system that governs this process has been so well conserved over the course of evolution that many of its components can function interchangeably in yeast and human cells: if a mutant yeast lacking an essential yeast cell-division-cycle gene is supplied with a copy of the homologous cell-division-cycle gene from a human, the yeast is cured of its defect and becomes able to divide normally

The expanded genome of eukaryotes therefore not only specifies the hardware of the cell, but also stores the software that controls how that hardware is used

he DNA is not just a shopping list specifying the mol-ecules that every cell must have, and the cell is not an assembly of all the items on the list. Rather, the cell behaves as a multipurpose machine, with sensors to receive environmental signals and with highly developed abilities to call different sets of genes into action according to the sequences of signals to which the cell has been exposed.

exceptions

Even in compact eukaryotic genomes such as that of puffer fish, there is more noncoding DNA than coding DNA, and at least some of the noncoding DNA cer-tainly has important functions. In particular, it regulates the expression of adja-cent genes. With this regulatory DNA, eukaryotes have evolved distinctive ways of controlling when and where a gene is brought into play. This sophisticated gene regulation is crucial for the formation of complex multicellular organisms.

amoeba

These conserved subregions are likely to be the most important parts of the gene in terms of function.

The great majority of these universal families include components of the translation and transcription systems. T

On a longer time scale, the results can be even more pro-found; it has been estimated that at least 18% of all of the genes in the present-day genome of E. coli have been acquired by horizontal transfer from another species within the past 100 million years

When they are mature, the bacterium will burst open to release them.

Prokaryotes provide good examples of the horizontal transfer of genes from one species of cell to another

gene GA

the faulty cells are almost always eliminated

Both in the storage and in the copying of genetic information, random accidents and errors occur, altering the nucleotide sequence—that is, creating mutations

commonancestorcel

Although the chemical details vary, the hydrophobic tails of the predominant membrane molecules in all cells are hydrocarbon polymers (–CH2–CH2–CH2–), and their spontaneous assembly into a bilayered vesicle is but one of many exam-ples of an important general principle: cells produce molecules whose chemical properties cause them to self-assemble into the structures that a cell needs.

. Such molecules placed in water aggregate spontaneously, arranging their hydropho-bic portions to be as much in contact with one another as possible to hide them from the water, while keeping their hydrophilic portions exposed.

Each type of tRNA becomes attached at one end to a specific amino acid, and displays at its other end a specific sequence of three nucleotides—an anticodon—