We are justified in believing something to be true when it provides the best explanation of the evidence.

Observation is always selective.

The separation between state and church must therefore be complemented by the separation between state and science.

iscloser to science than even Horton himself is prepared to admit.

In addition, the idea isdetrimental to science,for it neglects the complex physical and historical conditions which influence scientific change.

Using propranolol (a non-selective beta blocker)

Liv-ing with painful memories and learning lessons from these painful memories are part of our well-being.

erroneous beliefs about his courage or cruelty, traits thatmight be relevant in a crisis situation.

Such research raises hope for treatingconditions such as post-traumatic stress disorder(PTSD), in which painful memories become intrusiveand damage an individual’s ability to live an ordinarylife.

For instance, if someonehas been abused, he would still feel a sense of unease if he met the abuseragain, even if the memory had been “deleted,”

When you pull one brick out of the wall of memories, manyother memories go with it. Memories are incredibly interlocked with oneanother.”

I think we can change some memories without changing fundamentally whowe are or how we behave

If it is true that our actions, our personalities,our very notions of self are based on the experiences we have had and on thememories we have collected, then to delete our memories would be to destroy apart of ourselves

WEIRD people have a bad habit of universalizing from their own particularities.

A person is a person through other persons.’ This is a richer and better account, I think, than ‘I think, therefore I am.’

Memory must be simply something you have, not something you do within a certain context.

Cartesian dualists, in the sense of believing that mind and matter are completely separate

. Who I am depends on many ‘others’: my family, my friends, my culture, my work colleagues.

Akan linguistic conventions distinguish infants from full persons on the basis of their lacking intellectual and moral maturity.

intelligence in the modern Western sense.

Ordinary languages may therefore embody different psychologies as much as written texts

We forget that these distinctions have been made and maintained as part of one tradition of thinking

We may not have yet reached the state in which a single satanic character coulderadicate all life on Earth, but with cognitive enhancement by traditional means alone,we may soon be there.

f so, would people choose to take it? Couldcriminals be given the option, as an alternative to prison, of a drug-releasing implant that would make them less likely to harm others?

passive neuroimaging, an employer could beallowed to scan applicants’ brains for screening and pre-diction purposes (looking for desired personality and cog-nitive traits) but employees would not be allowed to useactive neurointerventions to modify themselves.

here is a relevant distinc-tion between ‘‘passive’’ and ‘‘active’’ neurointerventions.‘‘Passive’’ would refer to technologies that acquire infor-mation from the brain but do not alter it, while ‘‘active’’would refer to technologies that modify the brain.

Alice, however, would be freeto use neurointerventions. This policy would maximize thevalue of protecting employees from exploitation but wouldgive considerable leeway to employee choices.

The point is that multiple principles will appeal topeople depending on what the framing of the issue is andwhat the actual motivations, consequences, and experi-ences are of the business neurointervention phenomenon

reframethe issue by asking ‘‘should people be forbidden from usingneurointerventions to improve themselves?’

Essentially, the issue is how neu-rotechnology can enter into the process already establishedand practiced

freedom and responsibility might be undermined byresearch in the neurological bases of behavior, how socialinequity might arise from enhancing cognitive abilities,and how detecting mental states might challenge privacy

developing fields of neu-roethics and neurolaw

DCS has also been used to treat reading disabilities likedyslexia

they still present risks.

As it is difficult to predict the exact future trajectory ofneuroscience, neuroergonomics, BCIs, and human augmentationtechnologies, it is also difficult to predict how neuroethics,i.e., how society, will look at such technologies

Cell phones are another example. No one dreamed that cell phones would become available so rapidly to hundreds of millions of people around the world. But some technologies do diffuse slowly, and where they diffuse slowly there's a potential for problems of inequality.

e. The misleading assumption is that if wedon't interfere, we're going to continue the way we are

Is this enhancement

is a guide to predicting the trajectory of cosmetic neurology, as he calls it

a daily regimen of three 20-milligram doses of Adderall transformed his career

What happens if you’re in a fast-paced surgical situation and they’re not available?” he asked. “Will you be able to function at the same level?”

ncreased use of such drugs could raise the standard of what is considered “normal” performance and widen the gap between those who have access to the medications and those who don’t —and even erode the relationship between struggle and the building of character

Some argue that such use could be worse, given the potentially deep impact on society

brain and mind is to regard them as fundamentally different substances, one material, the other immaterial.

mental states and brain states

an immaterial mind could never interact with material things

an immaterial mind could never interact with material things

mental states and brain states

mental states and brain states

an immaterial mind could never interact with material things or events like the electrical impulses and biochemical activities occurring constantly in and between our neural cells.

mental states and brain states

an immaterial mind could never interact with material things or events like the electrical impulses and biochemical activities occurring constantly in and between our neural cells.

immortal

brain and mind is to regard them as fundamentally different substances, one material, the other immaterial.

The principle of justice is a strongmotivation toward the reform of our health care system so that the needs ofthe entire population are taken into account.

However, this procedure wouldresult in the death of the fetus.

The reason for such a choice is based on the beliefof the patient that prolonged living with a painful and debilitating conditionis worse than death, a greater harm.

When properly andcompassionately informed, the particular patient is then free to choosewhether to accept the blood transfusion in keeping with a strong desire tolive, or whether to refuse the blood transfusion in giving a greater priority tohis or her religious convictions about the wrongness of blood transfusions,even to the point of accepting death as a predictable outcome.

On the other hand, surgery and general anesthesia carry some smalldegree of risk to an otherwise healthy patient, and we are under anobligation "not to harm" the patient.

r eat principles ofjus ti ceandme rcy.Theydo not constitute a the ory of morality be ca use they do not te ll us wha tmakesan act ion right.Bu t th ey do ser ve as boundary conditions that any th e-ory of morality mustme et. If a mo ral theoryviolates one or more of the seprin ciples,it’s unacceptable.

. This view of morality isofte n calledthedivin e commandth eory,for it hold s that what make s an ac -tion ri gh t is that God commandsit to be don

Cul tural relativism,then,is the doctrinethat wha t make s an actionrightis that it’s approvedby one’sculture.

e. This jud gme nt caneasilybe ex pl ainedon the hy pothesisthat somethings(like un nece ss ary suf -feri ng) are ob jectivelywro ng , bu t this explanation is not availableto theemotivists.

Subjectiverelativismca n’t be a correcttheoryof mora lity be caus e it sanc -tion s obviously immoralactions,it impliesthat peoplear e mor ally infallible,and it deniesthat thereare any substantivemoraldisagr eements

n. Then, acc ordingto sub -jectiveabs olutism,whatLester di d was right.Now suppose that so meoneels edisa pprovedof that act ion. Thenwhat Les ter did w

Manypeoplelearnhow to act morallyby beingta ught a mo ral code.As aresu lt, manybel ieve that the re’s no thingmoreto actingmorallythan fol low -ing a mora l c

1. Phenomenap.2. If hypothesish were true, it would pro vide the best exp lanat ion of p.3. Therefore,it’s proba ble that h

law. Whene ver medi ca l resea rcher s tes t a new dr ug on labor at oryanimals,they ar e makingan analogic al in

The earth ha s ai r, water, and lif e. Mars is like the eart h inthat it has ai r and wa te r. Therefore, it’s probablethat Mars ha s

Enumerativeinductionis the sort of reas oning we us e when we ar rive at ageneralization about a gro up of things aft er obs erv ing only so me membe rs ofthat gro

ue. When both cond itions are me t— when an argum entis vali d and its premisesare tru e— the argume nt is said to besoun d

So deductiveargume nts are said to be “tr uth pr es erving”becaus e thetrut h of their premise s guar antees the trut h of their concl usions .Ind uctive arguments,on the other hand, are not tr uth pres erv ing becaus ethe truth of their premisesdoesn’tguara ntee the tr ut h of their con

ones, lo gic identifi esthe ways in which premisesand conclusionmust be re lated in or der for theconclusion to follow fro

The laws of science must obey the laws of logic. But the laws of logic need not obey the laws of science.

Because we can’t rule out these possibilities, some claim that we can’t have knowledge of the external world.

He isn’t the same person he was ten years ago.

But our senses sometimes deceive us.

t, the finaldec isionthat the cure is ex pl ainedbyGod’sinterventionis morelike a leap of faith thana ra -tionaldec isio

n. Thismiraclewas the allegedcureof SergePerrin,a Frenchaccountan t wh o, wh ile at Lourdesin19 70, expe ri enceda suddenrecovery froma lon g ill-ness.Af ter investigation, th e internati onalco mm itteeof doctorsthat investigatesthe claimof mi raclesfor th eChu rch had sai d that Perrinwas su fferingfro m “a caseof recu rringorganichemiplegia[p aralysisof one side ofthe body]withocularlesions,due to cerebralcircula-tory defects”and tha t his cure had no medi cal ex plana -tion

Theythi nkthat it shouldnot be maintai ned as a dogmathat beli efin miraclesis rational;th us, perhapsCatholics sho ul dbelievein somemiracles,for example,the Resurrectionand the VirginBirth,but not becauseth ese doctrinesare rational.