Moreover, the lessons of Vietnam — and especially the futility of nation-building in poor and divided societies that we do no understand — were forgotten with remarkable speed.

the “lessons” of World War II reinforced the notion that America was the “indispensable” power that must lead everywhere.

It taught several generations of Americans about the hazards of appeasement, the (alleged) importance of credibility, the dangers of isolationism, the value of allies, and the need for military supremacy.

Great wars are wrenching, costly, and frightening events that affect all of society; they are episodes where the future of the entire country is on the line.

Geography can also drive a nation’s desire for “defensible borders” or spheres of influence and affect the ease or difficulty of achieving that goal.

Rising states tend to define their interests more expansively as their power increases, and big shifts in the balance of power typically create windows of opportunity and sometimes increase incentives for preventive war.

. Thoughtful Africans hold that Africa has a definite world position to assume above that of being merely an exploited vineyard of the world's raw material

In the economic environment of the twen- tieth century such a master-servant economy can be maintained only by the exercise of force

Miss Van der Horst, in her study, Native Labour in South Africa, finds that mine owners pay African labor one- seventh of the wage paid the Euro- peans

Not only are na- tives retricted to certain levels of em- ployment, but where they perform the same menial work as the whites, they are paid on a widely different wage scale

Wherever there is a considerable resident white population, the natives have been forced off the most produc- tive lands and restricted to areas dis- proportionate to their relative num- ber

hese Ber- bers are fierce fighters, tenacious of their liberties, and bound to France and formerly in the case of Libya to Italy not by choice but by force of arms. The native people of all North Africa are highly critical of French suzerainty. Can they look forward to choosing in the near future their form of government

no longer are glass beads and trinkets marvelous to them; they are much more inter- ested in the marvels of the white man's gun

Will the hopes of the peoples, especially of the darker peoples, be realized or will the Peace Congress convened at the end of this global war have as its ulterior purpose the divi- sion of the spoils of the vanquished and a return as near as possible to the status quo ante belluu?

s. A multinational mili- tary force, be it called an international police force or an army, is thus always threatened with partial or total disintegration. Its survival as a reliable and effective force depends upon the persistence of the national interests on which it rests.

was the pattern of the Korean War. That this war was called a police action by the supporters of the status quo did not affect the nature of the operatio

e chal- lenge to the legal order and the political status quo emanates from or is sup- ported by a great power, the police action reverts to the traditional pattern of a coalition war.

But it is too much to expect that large masses of in- dividual members of different nations could so transfer their loyalties that they would execute reliably and without question whatever orders the international organization might give them. The reliability of an international police force cannot be taken for granted by virtue of the morale and discipline which we have come to expect from the domestic polic

The battle of Rossbach signified the end of the imperial army. According to Ranke, the very name disappeared.7 The reasons for this catastrophe must be sought in the unreliability of the imperial arm

Thus the Holy Roman Empire developed in a way which is the reverse of the development many expect the United Nations to take: starting as a supranational organization, it ended as a federation of sovereign stat

, our fundamental proposition is that the problems with which an international police force must come to terms are posed by the peculiar character of the international socie

Quite the contrary, it depends upon political, social, and moral conditions which may or may not be present in individual members of the police or the police force as a whole. These *conditions must be created and maintained through a continuous effort of the political authorities. In other words, the functioning of a police force depends not only upon its internal technical quali- ties, but also upon the political, social, and moral climate within which it oper- ate

Wherever a society is rent by deeply felt controversies, even though they do not lead to open violence, the political preferences of the police are likely to color the performance of its function

n legal terms the police have the function of enforcing the the laws; in political terms they have the function of upholding the authority of the government; in social terms they have the function of protecting a status quo as defined by the laws and expressed in the government's polici

A POLICE force, domestic or international, must meet two requirements: it must be reliable, and it must be effect

Specifically, it identifies three important components to successfully using technology with at-risk students: interactive learning, use of technology to explore and create rather than to “drill and kill,” and the right blend of teachers and technology.

n sum, social structures are real and objective, not "just talk."

To analyze the social construction of international politics is to analyze how processes of interaction produce and reproduce the social structures-coopera- tive or conflictual-that shape actors' identities and interests and the sig- nificance of their material context

The problem becomes even more acute when neorealists try to explain the relative absence of inter-state war in today's world. If anarchy is so determin- ing, why are there not more Bosnias? Why are weak states not getting killed off left and right

Constructivists, however, are modernists who fully endorse the scientific project of falsifying theories against evidence

constructivists argue that material resources only acquire meaning for human action through the structure of shared knowledge in which they are embedded

Social structures have three ele- ments: shared knowledge, material resources, and practices.7

structed by systemic structures, not exogenous to them; this leads to a socio- logical rather than micro-economic structuralism

one of our main objections to neorealism is that it is not structural enough: that adopting the individualistic metaphors of micro-economics restricts the effects of structures to state behavior, ignoring how they might also constitute state identities and interests

What unites them is a concern with how world politics is "socially constructed,"4 which involves two basic claims: that the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than strictly material (a claim that opposes materialism), and that these structur

The United Nations has no vested interest in the status quo. It seeks a more secure world, a better world, a world of progress for all peoples.

They are human problems. The United Nations is entitled to believe, and it does believe, that there are no insoluble problems of human relations and that there is none which cannot be solved by peaceful means.

In the future, it must be the forces of peace that are overwhelming.

may be found individual qualities of goodness and badness, honesty and subterfuge, courage and timorousness, internationalism and chauvinism. It could not be otherwise.

It is realized that if there is to be peace in the world, it must be attained through men and with man, in his nature and mores, just about as he now is.

He has demonstrated little spiritual genius and has made little progress toward the realization of human brotherhood. In the contemporary atomic age, this could prove man’s fatal weakness.

The well-being and the hopes of the peoples of the world can never be served until peace – as well as freedom, honour and self-respect – is secure.

Who could doubt that all of the peoples of Europe – whose towns and cities, whose peaceful countrysides, have been mercilessly ravaged; whose fathers and sons, mothers and daughters, have been slaughtered and maimed in tragic numbers – wish peace?

True it is that statesmen the world over, exalting lofty concepts and noble ideals, pay homage to peace and freedom in a perpetual torrent of eloquent phrases. But the statesmen also speak darkly of the lurking threat of war; and the preparations for war ever intensify, while strife flares or threatens in many localities.

It is, in fact, symptomatic of the real problem, which is the abdication of right-wing politics as a manager of the general long-term interests of the capitalist system, and the willingness of nominally conservative politicians and business interests to ally themselves with irrational populist energies.

If the Great Depression spawned Fannie Mae to give public backing to American mortgages, the 2020 crisis could trigger a similar reaction in vaccine development. If taking full public ownership of vaccine development is too much to swallow, why not establish a “biotech Megafund,” which, if it were provided with the right public guarantees, could use the magic of financial engineering to engineer AAA-rated biotech bonds for sale to asset managers, insurance companies and pension funds? For once, might the dog actually wag the tail?

But the invocation of Marxism is not out of place. What those big funds do represent is a step towards the realization of what Friedrich Engels called the collective capitalist (Gesamtkapitalist)—the channeling of competitive interests into pursuit of a collective, systemic self-interest.

As one fund manager put it, a cooperative response to the global COVID crisis was an “acid test of the suitability and sustainability of the current business model” of the pharma industry. The vaccine race is a make or break legitimacy test for the industry. But more than that, the world economy needs a fix. Without it, the broad-based, trillion-dollar portfolios of the asset managers cannot prosper.

But the field trials are global. Because they have so successfully repressed the virus at home, Chinese firms must contract with Brazil which has both a well-established public health system and a large-scale epidemic

The enlightened engagement of national security interests can have a dynamic effect in a health crisis—but not all assessments of security interests are so enlightened. In 2020, the United States may be seeking to monopolize a vaccine for use in America under Operation Warp Speed, headed by an official from the Defense Department.

All told, industry experts reckon that the normal outlay for the development of a vaccine through all four stages of approval is upward of $1 billion. And there is no guarantee of success.

As of early September, America’s Operation Warp Speed claims to have disbursed $10 billion.

Most drugs consist of a single molecule; biologics like vaccines are more complex.

It is a matter of urgent practical necessity. It is a question of legitimacy—of international and domestic order. It is also a decisive question for the future.

But, as constructivists scholars of IR remind us, anarchy is what we make of it.

The powerful actors in this drama are the nation states and their publics, and Big Pharma. The global public health regime is a thin film.

They have let it be known that they will not allow their vaccine candidates to go forward for FDA approval unless they themselves are wholly convinced that they are safe. That raises the inevitable question of whether the pharmaceutical industry’s own commitment to prudence and fairness can be trusted.

COVAX program, which aims to jointly develop and equally distribute a vaccine to the world

black box: a functional device that no one need second guess or closely inspect so long as it works.

Faced with a pandemic that paralyzed the world

It reasserted the martyrdom theme of the first wave, neglected by its two successors. The achievements in Lebanon inspired one remaining secular group, the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, who used suicide bombi

Aum Shinrikyo, a group that combined Buddhist, Christian, and Hindu religious themes, released nerve gas on the Tokyo subway, killing 12 and injuring 3000.

trikes on foreign embassies began in the third wave, when the PLO attacked the Saudi Embassy in Khartoum (1973). The most recent was the attack of the Peruvian "Shining Path"(1996), which held 72 hostages in the Japanese Embassy for more than four months (1996-7) until a rescue operation killed every terrorist in the Embassy

Many groups in the "developed world" (e.g., American Weather Underground, West German RAF, Italian Red Brigades, Japanese Red Army, and the French Action Directe saw themselves as vanguards for the masses of the Third World where much hostility to the West already existed.

Most conspicuous was the lesson learned that assassinating prominent political figures was often counterproductive, and few attacks on the prominent occurred.

Stepniak described the terrorist as "noble, terrible, irresistibly fascinating, uniting the two sublimities of human grandeur, the martyr and the hero."

1) Modern society contains huge reservoirs of latent ambivalence and hostility.(14) 2) Society muffles and diffuses them by devising moral conventions to generate guilt and provide channels for settling some grievances and securing personal amenities. 3) However, conventions can be explained historically, and therefore acts we deem to be immoral, our children will hail as noble efforts to liberate humanity. 4) Terror is the quickest and most effective means to destroy conventions

The telegraph, daily mass newspapers, and railroads flourished in this period; and subsequently throughout the 20th century, technology continued to shrink time and space

In the 1880s, an initial "Anarchist Wave"(6) appeared which continued for some 40 years. Its successor, the "Anti-Colonial Wave" began in the 1920s, and by the 1960s had largely disappeared. The late 1960s witnessed the birth of the "New Left Wave," which dissipated largely in the 90s leaving a few groups still active in Sri Lanka, Spain, France, Peru, and Columbia. The fourth or "Religious Wave" began in 1979, and, if it follows the pattern of its predecessors, it still has twenty to twenty-five years to run

Attorney General Palmer (1919) to round up all Anarchists

Terrorist tactics invariably produce rage and frustration, often driving governments to respond in unanticipated, extraordinary, illegal, and destructive ways. B

emocr

Table 1 shows thedistribution of December 2007 voting intentions over the Democratic field condi-tional on respondent race. White respondents constitute 67% of those intending tovote in the Democratic primaries and caucuses; among these white respondentsClinton enjoys a 12-point margin over Obama (31% to 19%), but 23% of whiterespondents say they are not sure who they will support. Hispanics constitute 10%of respondents intending to vote in the Democratic primaries and caucuses and hereClinton leads Obama 46–21; Clinton’s 46% support among Hispanics represents herbest result within any racial group. Among black respondents – who constitute 19%of respondents intending to vote in the Democratic primaries and caucuses – Obamaleads Clinton by 22 points, 47–25.

Australia's Dollar has risen 1.3% against the U.S. Dollar this last week and by 3.67% in December, which has whittled its 2019 loss down to just -0.59% ahead of year-end

The Australian Ambassador, H.E. Craig Chittick, and the World Bank Country Director, Mr Ousmane Dione, signed today a new five year partnership to continue joint support to Vietnam’s sustainable and inclusive economic reform agenda.

, Julie Bishop, Australia’s Minister for Foreign Affairs said: “Australia’s AUD3 million contribution to this partnership with the World Bank will foster sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction in the Indo-Pacific region through increased private sector investment.”

it is between elites and aggrieved, fearful people seeking protection from foreigners, economic competition, and technological change.