Moreover, the lessons of Vietnam — and especially the futility of nation-building in poor and divided societies that we do no understand — were forgotten with remarkable speed.
To bolster his point, Walt describes how limited wars such as interventions in Vietnam, Afghanistan, and Iraq have already been "forgotten with remarkable speed" since they were not great wars that encompassed every strata of society.
the “lessons” of World War II reinforced the notion that America was the “indispensable” power that must lead everywhere.
Walt's ultimate belief is that World War II left the United States one of the world's superpowers since it inculcated a nation that the United States was "indispensable" to global security.
It taught several generations of Americans about the hazards of appeasement, the (alleged) importance of credibility, the dangers of isolationism, the value of allies, and the need for military supremacy.
When specifying World War II's effect on American foreign policy ideals, Walt points to several staples of US foreign policy. Still, Walt caveats this message by also describing how this sense of American exceptionalism ignores sacrifices of other countries, such as the Soviet Union, to the war effort.
Great wars are wrenching, costly, and frightening events that affect all of society; they are episodes where the future of the entire country is on the line.
According to Walt, since "great wars" mobilize every strata of society, they are "episodes" that will determine the future trajectory of a countries' national identities and narratives.
Geography can also drive a nation’s desire for “defensible borders” or spheres of influence and affect the ease or difficulty of achieving that goal.
Walt's claim that geography will determine the borders a country desires is historically true and necessitates some form of conquest to expand to those borders. Walt validates this point further by describing the realist focus on geography as a key determinant in a state's foreign policy.
Rising states tend to define their interests more expansively as their power increases, and big shifts in the balance of power typically create windows of opportunity and sometimes increase incentives for preventive war.
Walt's commentary that rising states will seek to capitalize on "big shifts in the balance of power" indicates that the current great powers are defined by their status after wars. Furthermore, Wa't refers to "preventative war" to inhibit a rising power from upsetting the current hierarchy.
. Thoughtful Africans hold that Africa has a definite world position to assume above that of being merely an exploited vineyard of the world's raw material
Throughout her article, Tate makes frequent, impassioned conclusions such as these which lay bare the reality that material imbalances have caused Africa to be "merely an exploited vinyard." This comment also prompts the reader to wonder: if African states had sovereignty over their resouces, would the great power hierarchy change?
In the economic environment of the twen- tieth century such a master-servant economy can be maintained only by the exercise of force
Here, Tate contextualizes her argument to the audience: in the twentieth century, the master-servant hierarchy can only be maintained by the "exercise of force." As Tate has also outlines the wage, land, and other material restrictions on oppressed peoples, it is clear the "exercise of force" is upheld by the material wealth of the white powers.
Miss Van der Horst, in her study, Native Labour in South Africa, finds that mine owners pay African labor one- seventh of the wage paid the Euro- peans
Tate applies her reflections onto the Union of South Africa, where Miss Van der Horst discovered the pay imbalance was as of such a magnitude, "one-seventh of the wage paid the Europeans."
Not only are na- tives retricted to certain levels of em- ployment, but where they perform the same menial work as the whites, they are paid on a widely different wage scale
Aside from land cultivation, Tate also covers the imbalance in oppressed people finding gainful employment; since wage work is both (a) "paid on a widely different" scale than whites, and (b) "restricted," it means the oppressed people of the world cannot challenge the current hierarchy.
Wherever there is a considerable resident white population, the natives have been forced off the most produc- tive lands and restricted to areas dis- proportionate to their relative num- ber
Tate's reflection on land distribution indicates the vital role productive lands play in perpetuating the current hierarchy. Afterwards, Tate applies this statement to the Union of South Africa's prohibition Africans renting or buying land from non-Africans except in designated zone.
hese Ber- bers are fierce fighters, tenacious of their liberties, and bound to France and formerly in the case of Libya to Italy not by choice but by force of arms. The native people of all North Africa are highly critical of French suzerainty. Can they look forward to choosing in the near future their form of government
Tate's characterization of the Berbers as "fierce fighters" and "tenacious of their liberties" underscore her support for their self determination; therefore, Tate advances her argument that the hierarchy of states is in its current state due to the imbalance of material powers.
no longer are glass beads and trinkets marvelous to them; they are much more inter- ested in the marvels of the white man's gun
Tate refers to the "darker peoples of the world" as having developed a desire for the military prowess of white states, as opposed to the historic trope of white traders marveling subjugated cultures with "trinkets."
Will the hopes of the peoples, especially of the darker peoples, be realized or will the Peace Congress convened at the end of this global war have as its ulterior purpose the divi- sion of the spoils of the vanquished and a return as near as possible to the status quo ante belluu?
Tate's italicization of "Peace," alongside her question whether the "ulterior purpose the division of spoils" will override any genuine effort at building an "all-embracing reform of the political system," illustrate that she does not hold immense faith in the postwar peace conference.
s. A multinational mili- tary force, be it called an international police force or an army, is thus always threatened with partial or total disintegration. Its survival as a reliable and effective force depends upon the persistence of the national interests on which it rests.
pyrrhic task to keep an international army
was the pattern of the Korean War. That this war was called a police action by the supporters of the status quo did not affect the nature of the operatio
Bunch also discusses the Korean war
e chal- lenge to the legal order and the political status quo emanates from or is sup- ported by a great power, the police action reverts to the traditional pattern of a coalition war.
UN and an international army by extension would essentially become another tool of a coalition war.
But it is too much to expect that large masses of in- dividual members of different nations could so transfer their loyalties that they would execute reliably and without question whatever orders the international organization might give them. The reliability of an international police force cannot be taken for granted by virtue of the morale and discipline which we have come to expect from the domestic polic
international police force under the aegis of the UN would fail much like the imperial army since individual members of different nations would have biases going into the conflict.
The battle of Rossbach signified the end of the imperial army. According to Ranke, the very name disappeared.7 The reasons for this catastrophe must be sought in the unreliability of the imperial arm
the united imperial army failed to fight the Prussians after the battle of Rossbach in large part because the army was unreliable and composed of many different squabbling groups with various strategic goals.
Thus the Holy Roman Empire developed in a way which is the reverse of the development many expect the United Nations to take: starting as a supranational organization, it ended as a federation of sovereign stat
HRE inverted the expectations of the UN by transitioning from a federation of sovereign states and into a supranational organization.
, our fundamental proposition is that the problems with which an international police force must come to terms are posed by the peculiar character of the international socie
similar to Bunch's belief in the diversity of the UN secretariat
Quite the contrary, it depends upon political, social, and moral conditions which may or may not be present in individual members of the police or the police force as a whole. These *conditions must be created and maintained through a continuous effort of the political authorities. In other words, the functioning of a police force depends not only upon its internal technical quali- ties, but also upon the political, social, and moral climate within which it oper- ate
Need for the political, social, and moral standards of a society to be upheld vigorously for the protection of an uncorrupt police group.
Wherever a society is rent by deeply felt controversies, even though they do not lead to open violence, the political preferences of the police are likely to color the performance of its function
political inclinations of police will determine the "performance of its function"
n legal terms the police have the function of enforcing the the laws; in political terms they have the function of upholding the authority of the government; in social terms they have the function of protecting a status quo as defined by the laws and expressed in the government's polici
legal, political, and social terms of the police.
A POLICE force, domestic or international, must meet two requirements: it must be reliable, and it must be effect
two requriements for an international police force: reliable and effective.
Specifically, it identifies three important components to successfully using technology with at-risk students: interactive learning, use of technology to explore and create rather than to “drill and kill,” and the right blend of teachers and technology.
Thesis
n sum, social structures are real and objective, not "just talk."
undermines the neoliberal notion that social structures can be eliminated via international institutions.
To analyze the social construction of international politics is to analyze how processes of interaction produce and reproduce the social structures-coopera- tive or conflictual-that shape actors' identities and interests and the sig- nificance of their material context
constructivism is a constant analysis of social forces and how interactions reaffirm or undermine preconceived orthodoxies.
The problem becomes even more acute when neorealists try to explain the relative absence of inter-state war in today's world. If anarchy is so determin- ing, why are there not more Bosnias? Why are weak states not getting killed off left and right
Wendt offers contemporary critique to neorealism from the paucity of violence in the post cold war world.
Constructivists, however, are modernists who fully endorse the scientific project of falsifying theories against evidence
constructivists are firmly within the modern school of thought
constructivists argue that material resources only acquire meaning for human action through the structure of shared knowledge in which they are embedded
constructivists see materials (ex. nuclear weapons) as viewed in pointedly social terms, as opposed to the material existing in of itself.
Social structures have three ele- ments: shared knowledge, material resources, and practices.7
Constructivists believe that structure is made of shared knowledge, material resource, and practices.
structed by systemic structures, not exogenous to them; this leads to a socio- logical rather than micro-economic structuralism
Constructivists consider state interests constructed by system structures. Sociological > micro-economic structuralism.
one of our main objections to neorealism is that it is not structural enough: that adopting the individualistic metaphors of micro-economics restricts the effects of structures to state behavior, ignoring how they might also constitute state identities and interests
neorealism takes the metaphors of micro-economics and ignores the structures of state behavior that guide state identities and interests.
What unites them is a concern with how world politics is "socially constructed,"4 which involves two basic claims: that the fundamental structures of international politics are social rather than strictly material (a claim that opposes materialism), and that these structur
core of constructivism: international politics is constructed around social forces, and that these structures shape the interests and identities of actors.
The United Nations has no vested interest in the status quo. It seeks a more secure world, a better world, a world of progress for all peoples.
idealist ends of the United Nations to disrupt the status quo and ensure "progress for all peoples."
They are human problems. The United Nations is entitled to believe, and it does believe, that there are no insoluble problems of human relations and that there is none which cannot be solved by peaceful means.
deeply idealist sentiment at the core of the United Nations
In the future, it must be the forces of peace that are overwhelming.
Bunche, referring to the Korean war, clearly sees the validity of the use of force to protect certain states.
may be found individual qualities of goodness and badness, honesty and subterfuge, courage and timorousness, internationalism and chauvinism. It could not be otherwise.
There will always be bad actors on the world stage, and Bunche understands this reality through viewing the conduct of the United Nations.
It is realized that if there is to be peace in the world, it must be attained through men and with man, in his nature and mores, just about as he now is.
Bunche asserts that the United nations is realistic in its goals since the organization does not seek to alter the baseline modus operandi of humanity.
He has demonstrated little spiritual genius and has made little progress toward the realization of human brotherhood. In the contemporary atomic age, this could prove man’s fatal weakness.
cynical reflection on how the world has "little spiritual genius"
The well-being and the hopes of the peoples of the world can never be served until peace – as well as freedom, honour and self-respect – is secure.
idealist notion of securing "freedom, honour, and self-respect" around the world.
Who could doubt that all of the peoples of Europe – whose towns and cities, whose peaceful countrysides, have been mercilessly ravaged; whose fathers and sons, mothers and daughters, have been slaughtered and maimed in tragic numbers – wish peace?
use of rhetorical questions to describe how beleaguered the world is of war present and idealist perspective that humankind may be prepared to move on from war.
True it is that statesmen the world over, exalting lofty concepts and noble ideals, pay homage to peace and freedom in a perpetual torrent of eloquent phrases. But the statesmen also speak darkly of the lurking threat of war; and the preparations for war ever intensify, while strife flares or threatens in many localities.
Bunch undercuts his reputation as uniquely idealist here since he considers statesmen around the world mostly acting in the preparation for war despite what their florid language may indicate.
It is, in fact, symptomatic of the real problem, which is the abdication of right-wing politics as a manager of the general long-term interests of the capitalist system, and the willingness of nominally conservative politicians and business interests to ally themselves with irrational populist energies.
conservatism for the sake of capitalism is gone and now superceded by indulgent, short-sided political gains in the short run.
If the Great Depression spawned Fannie Mae to give public backing to American mortgages, the 2020 crisis could trigger a similar reaction in vaccine development. If taking full public ownership of vaccine development is too much to swallow, why not establish a “biotech Megafund,” which, if it were provided with the right public guarantees, could use the magic of financial engineering to engineer AAA-rated biotech bonds for sale to asset managers, insurance companies and pension funds? For once, might the dog actually wag the tail?
public backing of vaccine bonds by the US government. Smart.
But the invocation of Marxism is not out of place. What those big funds do represent is a step towards the realization of what Friedrich Engels called the collective capitalist (Gesamtkapitalist)—the channeling of competitive interests into pursuit of a collective, systemic self-interest.
Marxists see bourgeois states as better served with "colective capitalism" (Gesamtkapital)
As one fund manager put it, a cooperative response to the global COVID crisis was an “acid test of the suitability and sustainability of the current business model” of the pharma industry. The vaccine race is a make or break legitimacy test for the industry. But more than that, the world economy needs a fix. Without it, the broad-based, trillion-dollar portfolios of the asset managers cannot prosper.
asset managers of these larger umbrella companies are calling for increased collaboration despite the company-to company competition in Pharma.
But the field trials are global. Because they have so successfully repressed the virus at home, Chinese firms must contract with Brazil which has both a well-established public health system and a large-scale epidemic
research labs have to export their trials oftentimes to countries with an active outbreak; networks of drug development reach across borders.
The enlightened engagement of national security interests can have a dynamic effect in a health crisis—but not all assessments of security interests are so enlightened. In 2020, the United States may be seeking to monopolize a vaccine for use in America under Operation Warp Speed, headed by an official from the Defense Department.
Obama admin did rapid Ebola response efforts spearheaded through the military; US military strong producer of vaccines
All told, industry experts reckon that the normal outlay for the development of a vaccine through all four stages of approval is upward of $1 billion. And there is no guarantee of success.
costs upward of 1 billion to vet a vaccine through the FDA
As of early September, America’s Operation Warp Speed claims to have disbursed $10 billion.
10 billion from US to covid research is nothing compared to the 700 billion devoted to the F-35 fighter program
Most drugs consist of a single molecule; biologics like vaccines are more complex.
biologics like vaccines are more complex and subject to confusion
It is a matter of urgent practical necessity. It is a question of legitimacy—of international and domestic order. It is also a decisive question for the future.
a tragedy of the commons scenario is unfolding where countries and industries are all working to maximize their own interests as opposed to concerted collaboration efforts.
But, as constructivists scholars of IR remind us, anarchy is what we make of it.
constructivists=anarchy is what we make of it in IR
The powerful actors in this drama are the nation states and their publics, and Big Pharma. The global public health regime is a thin film.
Triangle between the public, governments, and private industry with the WHO as a small mediating ground.
They have let it be known that they will not allow their vaccine candidates to go forward for FDA approval unless they themselves are wholly convinced that they are safe. That raises the inevitable question of whether the pharmaceutical industry’s own commitment to prudence and fairness can be trusted.
The private sector. in this case, the pharmaceutical industry, will not fulfill what the government requests until they themselves are confident in their vaccines.
COVAX program, which aims to jointly develop and equally distribute a vaccine to the world
USA withdrawal from COVAX a loss for polycentric governance.
black box: a functional device that no one need second guess or closely inspect so long as it works.
Vaccine as hopefully a "black box:" device we are 100% ensured will work.
Faced with a pandemic that paralyzed the world
This is a demand-side issue, so the idea of paralysis here truly is literal for the economic sense.
It reasserted the martyrdom theme of the first wave, neglected by its two successors. The achievements in Lebanon inspired one remaining secular group, the Tamil Tigers in Sri Lanka, who used suicide bombi
The Tamil Tigers and their assassination of Rajiv Ghandi encapsulate the crux of the religious terror movement: martyrdom is a powerful catalyst for recruitment.
Aum Shinrikyo, a group that combined Buddhist, Christian, and Hindu religious themes, released nerve gas on the Tokyo subway, killing 12 and injuring 3000.
Japanese group Aum Shinrikyo activated nerve gas in the Tokyo Subway to advance their own religious views
trikes on foreign embassies began in the third wave, when the PLO attacked the Saudi Embassy in Khartoum (1973). The most recent was the attack of the Peruvian "Shining Path"(1996), which held 72 hostages in the Japanese Embassy for more than four months (1996-7) until a rescue operation killed every terrorist in the Embassy
Terrorist attacks at embassies and hostage-taking became ubiquitous during the 1970s as groups on the New Left insisted on creating diplomatic chaos as much as domestic chaos.
Many groups in the "developed world" (e.g., American Weather Underground, West German RAF, Italian Red Brigades, Japanese Red Army, and the French Action Directe saw themselves as vanguards for the masses of the Third World where much hostility to the West already existed.
The Third wave, mainly concentrated in the developed world, considered the workers' socialism of the Soviet Union and China to be exemplars of governance. After seeing the Vietnamese victory against the United States, these groups became emboldened to go on the offense against different groups within their host Western nations.
Most conspicuous was the lesson learned that assassinating prominent political figures was often counterproductive, and few attacks on the prominent occurred.
The Anti-Colonial wave was dependent on funds from their respective diaspora and were generally less in favor of flagrant acts.
Stepniak described the terrorist as "noble, terrible, irresistibly fascinating, uniting the two sublimities of human grandeur, the martyr and the hero."
Terrorism, according to Sergey Stepniak, is ostensibly a provocative act of self-sacrifice.
1) Modern society contains huge reservoirs of latent ambivalence and hostility.(14) 2) Society muffles and diffuses them by devising moral conventions to generate guilt and provide channels for settling some grievances and securing personal amenities. 3) However, conventions can be explained historically, and therefore acts we deem to be immoral, our children will hail as noble efforts to liberate humanity. 4) Terror is the quickest and most effective means to destroy conventions
Anarchist doctrine underlines the necessity of elimination societal conventions as rapidly as possible; here, it is clear that terrorism was a natural option for these dissident groups.
The telegraph, daily mass newspapers, and railroads flourished in this period; and subsequently throughout the 20th century, technology continued to shrink time and space
The onset of technology aided the promulgation of terrorist movements.
In the 1880s, an initial "Anarchist Wave"(6) appeared which continued for some 40 years. Its successor, the "Anti-Colonial Wave" began in the 1920s, and by the 1960s had largely disappeared. The late 1960s witnessed the birth of the "New Left Wave," which dissipated largely in the 90s leaving a few groups still active in Sri Lanka, Spain, France, Peru, and Columbia. The fourth or "Religious Wave" began in 1979, and, if it follows the pattern of its predecessors, it still has twenty to twenty-five years to run
Outline of each of the waves.
Attorney General Palmer (1919) to round up all Anarchists
Palmer raids in the 1920s served to deport anarchists--many of whom had not committed any crimes. After the 1920 Wall Street Bombing, strict quotas targeted against Southern and Eastern Europe were enforced.
Terrorist tactics invariably produce rage and frustration, often driving governments to respond in unanticipated, extraordinary, illegal, and destructive ways. B
Terrorism's immediate responses are invariably going to elicit frustration and rage within the populace; hence. governments often times respond to public demand with drastic, legally dubious measures that can curtail civil liberties
emocr
Clinton leads with 11% amongst women, Obama has men +15
Table 1 shows thedistribution of December 2007 voting intentions over the Democratic field condi-tional on respondent race. White respondents constitute 67% of those intending tovote in the Democratic primaries and caucuses; among these white respondentsClinton enjoys a 12-point margin over Obama (31% to 19%), but 23% of whiterespondents say they are not sure who they will support. Hispanics constitute 10%of respondents intending to vote in the Democratic primaries and caucuses and hereClinton leads Obama 46–21; Clinton’s 46% support among Hispanics represents herbest result within any racial group. Among black respondents – who constitute 19%of respondents intending to vote in the Democratic primaries and caucuses – Obamaleads Clinton by 22 points, 47–25.
Table 1 illustrates how race initially showed Hillary as a leader amongst Latinos and white people.
Australia's Dollar has risen 1.3% against the U.S. Dollar this last week and by 3.67% in December, which has whittled its 2019 loss down to just -0.59% ahead of year-end
As of 2019, Australia is an active member of the World Bank, and the Australian dollar remains one of the most resilient currencies in the G10. For 2019, the Australian Dollar rose 1.3% against the U.S. Dollar and only has a loss of -0.59% by the year's end. As of now, with Australian philanthropy heightened, the economy stable, and Africa in urgent development, it is more than clear Australia is poised to be a leader at this critical juncture in Sub Saharan development.
The Australian Ambassador, H.E. Craig Chittick, and the World Bank Country Director, Mr Ousmane Dione, signed today a new five year partnership to continue joint support to Vietnam’s sustainable and inclusive economic reform agenda.
Historic precedent also provides insight into Australia's role in Sub Saharan development. A perfect case study is the Australian-World Bank partnership for the development of Vietnam. While ongoing, the initial phase indicated rapid economic improvement; the three pillars of phase one were: "improved national connectivity," "increased sustainable access to clean water," and "improved poverty reduction strategies for rural communities." As of now, Australia and the World Bank have constructed over 200km of rural roads and 87 bridges, introduced mobile phone technology to monitor water potability, and championed policy advice on a new "Law on Ethnic Minorities." Here, Australia sets the standard for ethical, philanthropic, and ambitious World Bank involvement. Building off of recent success, Australia committed twenty-five million Australian dollars to phase two: Vietnam 2035. By initiating phase two, the Australian government remains dedicated to its comprehensive role in regional development projects.
, Julie Bishop, Australia’s Minister for Foreign Affairs said: “Australia’s AUD3 million contribution to this partnership with the World Bank will foster sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction in the Indo-Pacific region through increased private sector investment.”
Julie Bishop, the Australian Minister for Foreign Affairs in 2015, spearheaded a comprehensive investment project with the World Bank which involved the infusion of three million Australian dollars into "sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction in the Indo-Pacific region through increased private sector development." The program, later dubbed SPIRA (Support Program on Investment Policy and Related Areas) has the expressed goals of: "bringing more and better jobs, improving productivity, facilitating knowledge transfer, and enabling integration with global value chains." The SPIRA collaboration highlights the active position Australia has as both a diplomatic and economic guide to the Indo-Pacific region and a private sector patron for developing businesses.
it is between elites and aggrieved, fearful people seeking protection from foreigners, economic competition, and technological change.
Elitism is to blame?