we must recognize the way cultural narratives circulate colonial hierarchies and how this circulation in turn perpetuates silencing, erasure, and violence toward Chicanas.

Reading through affect, particularly colonial affect-culture, demonstrates the way that colonial thinking structured Chicano nationalism and threatened to silence Chicanas by evicting them from the movement itself. Movement literature that cast women as vendidas further circulated colonial narratives that insisted on their devaluation.

Although Chicano nationalism condemned the reification of people of color, the critique of capital it produced failed to point out how Chicano nationalism itself—and the machismo that supported it—reproduced colonial gender hierarchies.

he movement's history and canon are largely recognized as dominated by male activist leaders and writers due to the lack of visibility of Chicana feminist leadership, artists, and writers.

In fact, one of the problems within the movement was its hostility toward feminists who voiced their concerns about the lack of women's rights in the movement agenda. Chicana feministas attempted to educate the Chicana/o/x population on the necessity of attending to women's issues and forwarding the agenda to encompass intersecting problems of racism, classism, and sexism.

Access to female power and sexuality threatened patriarchal control as access to female independence left behind the colonial religious buena mujer model of female discipline and control.

However, the idea of female independence was extremely threatening to the traditional Mexican Catholic family structure. The term agringadas is used as an insult to describe women who have assimilated into specifically Anglo-American culture. Its common association with Chicana women is tied to the myth of La Malinche as traitor and discloses the anxiety of loss of culture through intermarriage, as Chicana and Mexican women were historically tasked with the duty of cultural reproduction as mothers.

Chicanas who had access to white-collar jobs and single Chicanas living on their own did not fit into the working-class Chicano/a imaginary.

highlight the intersection of gender and class in this affect of resentment to highlight the envy, shame, and betrayal felt by Chicano men when confronted by Chicanas with access to middle-class jobs.

gendered difference generally results in higher wages for men, the racialization of labor negatively impacts Chicanos and other men of color.

While women of color gained access into the US white-collar service industry, men of color remained locked into the manual labor industry.

Furthermore, the colonial affect-culture that produced macho narratives of gender inequality influenced not only the men's perspective but also that of many women. As a result, both men and women within the movement viewed feminism as an Anglo women's agenda that detracted from the Chicano nationalist cause. This caused a split among the women in the movement between what became known as the "loyalists" and the feministas.

e male-centered activist environment of the movement.

feminine gendering of cultural betrayal.

Colonial affect-culture is replete with normalized patriarchal structures, and attention to their role in male-dominated activism reveals how colonial gender hierarchies were at work even in the civil rights agenda. Chicana movement feministas involved in the movement recognized these patriarchal underpinnings of the social movement. Their efforts are a response to the robotic, static, and sexist Chicano cultural nationalism that pervaded movement politics, organization, and leadership.

shunning women's rights as unimportant, Chicano activists sent the message that attaining equal rights for women, eliminating domestic abuse, increasing access to women's health care and family planning resources, combatting gender and sexual orientation discrimination, and more were not important. By marking these rights as secondary, macho activists imposed gendered colonial hierarchies and reacted with resentment when challenged.

reproduction of culture, they had no control or choice over how to do so and were relegated to the role of mother.

enemies of the Chicano nationalist cause

Chicanas of the 1960s and 1970s had three main roles within the movement, summed up colloquially by Moraga as "the three f 's... feeding, fighting, and fucking."

Whereas Christianity prescribed certain ethical behavior in war, colonialism justified the violation of these ethics. That is, through the dehumanization of Indigenous and African peoples, colonialism justified and normalized violence toward them.27 Enslavement, rape, and murder thus became essential tools of colonialism that did not come under the scrutiny of the Catholic Church or Christian ethics.

Gender, in other words, was racialized through colonialism, and, in turn, labor itself became categorized according to race and racialized gender.

a characteristic of la mala mujer, a marker of Indigeneity, racial inferiority, and lower class/caste.24

devalued because of their racialized bloodline.

revalued their bodies as desirable

In addition to enforcing ideals of virginity, heterosexuality, domesticity, submissiveness, and motherhood, the mujer buena ideal primarily defined the racial superiority of women of European descent over Indigenous and mestiza women in Mexico.

a woman's role as restricted to the standard imposed by the Catholic Church: una mujer buena (a good woman) modeled after the Virgin Mary.

"The issue of equality, freedom, and self-determination of the Chicana—like the right of self-determination, equality, and liberation of the Mexican [Chicano] community—is not negotiable. Anyone opposing the right of women to organize into their own form of organization has no place in the leadership of the movement."

reinforced heteronormative gender roles through their machismo.

Chicana feministas directly confronted patriarchal narratives that sought to control female behavior through the use of historic, folkloric, and religious Indigenous and mestiza female archetypes.

They theorized race and gender through the lens of colonial history in order to identify the roots of patriarchal social structures of female control, such as gender hierarchy and heteronormativity.

endida also calls attention to the way in which brown bodies have become part of economic circulations in uneven ways that are determined by these colonial racial and gendered hierarchies.

Chicana feministas during the movement that attempted to contest the hegemonic narratives that fueled patriarchal hierarchies

colonial affect-culture is embedded in cultural narratives that dictate gender hierarchies and heteronormativity, the racialization of class, immigration policies, and laws that police women's bodies

Affect in a colonial cultural value system fueled the lived belief that "global cultural order" revolved around "European or Western hegemony,"19 and the feelings of superiority based on relations to capital became codified in race and gender relations and justified the dismissal of all forms of non-Western knowledge, religion, and culture

colonial rule imposed gender hierarchies and heteronormativity.

Aníbal Quijano's concept of the "coloniality of power," which argues that the legacy of colonialism continues to replicate colonial hierarchies in the modern world through racial and labor hierarchies, or "coloniality." Colonial rule, Quijano explains, imposed a "systemic racial division of labor" that inevitably linked social classification with race in the global expansion of colonialism.

Affects are not free-floating energies; they are felt, material responses to interactions, relationships, and encounters with people, objects, and situations.

The theory in the flesh describes the ways that "the physical realities of our lives—our skin color, the land of concrete we grew up on, our sexual longings—all fuse to create a politic born out of necessity."

coloniality and socioeconomic conditions shaped and continue to shape the lived experiences of Chicanas in the United States.

macho, or chauvinist, Chicanos replicated colonial hierarchies of race and gender, thereby targeting Chicanas as vendidas—in real life and in literary representations—for not falling in line with a male-centered nationalist agenda.

material feminist approach that utilizes affect theory in order to account for the way colonial legacies continue to be enacted and felt at the intersection of race, gender, and class.

reappropriation of Miss Jimenez, the assimilated Mexican American vendida in Los Vendidos

agringadas, which in itself is a betrayal of culture and ethnic roots

patriarchal narratives through the reclaiming of historic, folkloric, and religious Indigenous and mestiza female archetypes—such as La Malinche—as symbols of resistance and survival

indictments of assimilation to a white feminist agenda

The use of the terms vendida and malinche to label Chicana feministas as traitors to the movement became so prevalent that La Malinche became the "paradigmatic figure of Chicana feminism."

a clear threat of cultural excommunication to assimilated people of Mexican descent: fall in line with Chicano nationalism, or we will run you out.

the Farmworker, the Pachuco, the Revolucionario, and the educated, well-spoken Mexican American.

vendidos, used to describe a group of people who have "sold out," specifically, people of Mexican descent who have turned their backs on their cultural heritage and completely assimilated into US culture.

"La Loca de la Raza Cósmica: Feminist response to 'I am Joaquín'"

Chicana feminists created an activist pedagogical strategy that did not abandon middle-class assimilated Chicana/os but rather validated their lived experiences as part of the Chicana/o experience even if it was not working class.

vendidas and agringadas (assimilated or "Anglocized")

colonial legacies and reproduces colonial hierarchies that continue to devalue women of color.

Chicano nationalism condemned the reification of people of color, the critique of capital it produced failed to point out how Chicano nationalism itself—and the machismo that supported it—reproduced colonial gender hierarchies.

Access to female power and sexuality threatened patriarchal control as access to female independence left behind the colonial religious buena mujer model of female discipline and control.

However, the idea of female independence was extremely threatening to the traditional Mexican Catholic family structure. The term agringadas is used as an insult to describe women who have assimilated into specifically Anglo-American culture. Its common association with Chicana women is tied to the myth of La Malinche as traitor and discloses the anxiety of loss of culture through intermarriage,

affect of resentment to highlight the envy, shame, and betrayal felt by Chicano men when confronted by Chicanas with access to middle-class jobs.

gendered difference generally results in higher wages for men, the racialization of labor negatively impacts Chicanos and other men of color.49

Chicanas were tasked with the reproduction of culture

"the three f 's... feeding, fighting, and fucking."

Gender, in other words, was racialized through colonialism, and, in turn, labor itself became categorized according to race and racialized gender

la mala mujer, a marker of Indigeneity, racial inferiority, and lower class/caste

. Simultaneously, Indigenous and mestiza women in New Spain became devalued because of their racialized bloodline

the mujer buena ideal primarily defined the racial superiority of women of European descent over Indigenous and mestiza women in Mexico.

They theorized race and gender through the lens of colonial history in order to identify the roots of patriarchal social structures of female control, such as gender hierarchy and heteronormativity.

vendida also calls attention to the way in which brown bodies have become part of economic circulations in uneven ways that are determined by these colonial racial and gendered hierarchies.

European or Western hegemony,

"coloniality of power," which argues that the legacy of colonialism continues to replicate colonial hierarchies in the modern world through racial and labor hierarchies, or "coloniality."

Affects

The theory in the flesh describes the ways that "the physical realities of our lives—our skin color, the land of concrete we grew up on, our sexual longings—all fuse to create a politic born out of necessity."

coloniality and socioeconomic conditions shaped and continue to shape the lived experiences of Chicanas in the United States.

macho, or chauvinist, Chicanos replicated colonial hierarchies of race and gender, thereby targeting Chicanas as vendidas—in real life and in literary representations—for not falling in line with a male-centered nationalist agenda

intersection of race and gender with class in order to draw out the way the movement identified a working-class background as the quintessential Chicano experience, marking middle-class Chicanas as sellouts to the US capitalist system.

material feminist approach that utilizes affect theory in order to account for the way colonial legacies continue to be enacted and felt at the intersection of race, gender, and class.

reappropriation of Miss Jimenez, the assimilated Mexican American vendida in Los Vendidos,

attack others for not being "Mexican enough" or for "betraying" the Chicano nationalist agenda

patriarchal narratives through the reclaiming of historic, folkloric, and religious Indigenous and mestiza female archetypes—such as La Malinche—as symbols of resistance and survival

vendida and malinche to label Chicana feministas as traitors to the movement became so prevalent that La Malinche became the "paradigmatic figure of Chicana feminism."

a clear threat of cultural excommunication to assimilated people of Mexican descent: fall in line with Chicano nationalism, or we will run you out

vendidos, used to describe a group of people who have "sold out," specifically, people of Mexican descent who have turned their backs on their cultural heritage and completely assimilated into US culture

vendidas and agringadas

colonial legacies and reproduces colonial hierarchies

bottom of the socio-economic ladder, and large numbers of them are remaining there even after several generations in the United States

people who believe they are coming home

And, as rapidly increasing numbers of Latinos have gained access to the public services provided by the federal and state governments, the quality of those services has been undermined.

Brown Berets of Aztlan

La Raza [the Race, referring to Latino ethnicity] is a victim of the same political and economic forces

MALDEF (the Mexican American Legal Defense and Education Fund)

accommodate the presence of increasing numbers of illegal residents, such as creating day-labor hiring centers, recognizing Mexican government-issued consular identity cards for official purposes, and issuing driver’s licenses and official identity cards without regard to legal status.

This is a myth that ascribes the origin of the indigenous people who governed in Latin America before the European conquest to an area comprised of the Southwest of the United States and the Northwest of Mexico