They raised funds to hire lawyers or, where appropriate, donated their legal skills freely. Representatives of radical groups acted on negotiation teams in some prison uprisings, working alongside politicians, journalists, and others to represent prisoner interests. Some contributed even more directly: they organized with other prisoners after being incarcerated for their own political activism. While some prisoners became activists out of simple frustration with their conditions, other activists became prisoners. They helped each other, the seasoned activists providing political education while the longtime prisoners providing knowledge of how to navigate or undermine a particular institution.

Black Power and New Left radicals. Organizations such as the Black Panther Party (BPP; founded in 1966), the Republic of New Afrika (RNA; founded in 1968), and the Young Lords Party (YLP; a Puerto Rican organization founded in New York in 1969)

recidivism.

he Higher Education Act of 1965 brought a federally funded loan-and-work program to postsecondary education, including grant funds for students through the Pell Grant program

This prison nation, to use a term from Activist Scholar Beth Richie, disproportionately targets communities of color.

How can teachers facilitate academic development without sacrificing cultural sensitivity?

Toward this end I have identified studies that show how teachers adapted to the specific needs and concerns of the students to create rigorous and relevant English Language Arts instruction. I focus on three primary areas of scholarship; popular culture, sociocultural language pedagogies, and youth participatory action research.

I say additive because through ethnography we are able to unpack the logic of cultural practice. Rather than looking for deficits in students, families, and communities, ethnography allows us to understand how communities make sense of the world on their own terms.

how educators have been able to achieve remarkable results by accounting for demographic influences when designing and implementing literacy pedagogy.

Through ethnographic case studies informed by the cross cultural and sociocultural traditions, we learned that valuable language and literacy practices in homes and communities have been largely unnoticed, ignored, or misunderstood by schools and formal institutions

As we recount in this book, prisoners have shaped and reshaped American law, culture, labor relations, and politics more broadly.

The United States incarcerates more people than any other country in the world.

in solitary confinement, despite the demonstrated challenges that such isolation places on one's mental and physical health.

a Congressional act has required 34,000 immigrants to be detained on a daily basis, which has required arrests to stay apace with deportations.[2]

criminologist David Garland labels “penal welfarism,” expanded the therapeutic components—recreational programs, literacy efforts, psychological counseling—alongside the diverse forms of physical restraint that have always characterized imprisonment.[9]

. As sociologist John Irwin, who himself spent several years in prison in the 1950s, suggests, “prisoners are human beings who are not treated as human beings, and … the outcome of this mistreatment is unnecessary, unfair, and counterproductive.”[14]