PET scans combined with CAT scans are even more useful and insightful

PET scans are extremely important to understanding every aspect of the brain and how it functions

The study of the nervous system relies on optical and microscopic techniques

There are many important structures hidden in the middle of the brain

This cortex deals a lot with bodily representation

The muscles of the body are controlled by one strip in the brain

This is another valuable graphic to use

This is a great graphic to use when discussing the components of the nervous system

The brain has become increasingly complex over time

Important fluctuations listed here

Characteristic of action potential

Action potential: A transient all-or-nothing electrical current that is conducted down the axon when the membrane potential reaches the threshold of excitation.

Dendrites: processes that extend outward from the soma of a neuron and typically branch several times Soma: the cell body Axon: the main source of output of the neuron

Resting membrane potential: the baseline electrical charge inside the cell compared with outside the cell

Electrostatic pressure: the force on two ions with similar charges to repel each other and the force of two ions with opposite charge to attract to one another.

1. electrical conduction of dendritic input to the initiation of an action potential
2. chemical transgression across the synaptic gap between the presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron of the synapse

Unipolar neurons: ideal for relaying information Bipolar neurons: involved in sensory perception Multipolar neurons: communicate sensory and motor information

Diffuse optical imaging is likely the most desirable method because it provides good results for both resolutions.

Is it more important to have good temporal or good spatial resolution?

Are there negative impacts related to the use of electrical pulses to stimulate and change the brain?

Dissection is essential to our understanding of the brain, its cells, and how it is impacted by disease

Phrenology: one of the first organized attempts to study the functions of the brain

Converging evidence: similar findings reported from multiple studies using different methods

Gray matter: composed of the neuronal cell bodies White matter: composed of the axons of the neurons

Split-brain patients help us understand the functions of each hemisphere as separate from one another

Within these two connected hemispheres, some functions are shared between both while others are primarily in one hemisphere and not the other

The following descriptions are extremely important to understanding how the brain works. The rest of this paragraph describes what each different lobe is used for, which is an important concept to break down in this way.

There are four lobes in the cerebral hemispheres: occipital, temporal, parietal, and frontal.

Cerebral hemispheres coordinate cognitive abilities and conscious experiences

The cerebellum has the most neurons

The cerebellum is at the back of the brain

More functions of the parts of the brain stem

The brain has six subcategories

The purpose of the brain stem

Communication between neurons is a defining factor in what a person is able to do cognitively

A person does use every part of their brain. However, the entire brain is not in use all at the same time. This is an important aspect of cognition

Metabolites: a substance necessary for a living organism to maintain life

People cannot use the same resource to accomplish two different things

Triangulation

Grounded theory

Participant observation

Strength of qualitative research

The beginning of qualitative research

Combination designs are a combination of different aspects of both the non-equivalent groups design and the pretest-posttest design.

I think this figure would be a good one to add into our textbook. This chart makes it much easier to understand interrupted time series and how the data from this type of study would be presented.

Spontaneous remission

Regression to the mean

This method focuses on the bookends of the study. It only measures the first and last data point and ignores the journey between them.

When conditions are not randomly assigned, the groups tend to be different from each other. However, there are ways a researcher can use non-equivalent group designs and create similar groups.

Requirement of content analysis

One person's coding needs to be confirmed by others

There are two issues researchers must look at: the methods for sampling and measurement.

In correlational research, variables can be measured in any environment through the use of any method.

An important characteristic of correlational research

This diagram adds useful information to a topic we have already learned about. It is important to have materials that build on one another so the reader understand how a concept is applied within that particular field.

Research can also be non-experimental if it is qualitative. This involves non-numerical analysis.

Single-variable research: research that focuses on a single variable rather than a statistical relationship between two variables.

Use non-experimental research when the question can be about a single variable, a non-causal statistical relationship between variables, a causal relationship between variables where the independent variable can't be manipulated or participants can't be randomly assigned to conditions, what a particular experience is like, or a broad topic.

Non-experimental research does not have an independent variable and doesn't assign participants to a condition

It is important to get feedback from the participants in order to refine the research process and design.

Doing a pilot test allows the formal research to go much more smoothly. It allows the experimenter to refine their process or conditions if the design of the research does not work well. It could also give the experimenter more insight into what group of people they had wanted to target. They may realize they need to narrow or broaden their targeted group of people.

Your expectations affect your behavior. If you believe something will go well, you will act more positively towards it. If you think something will go poorly, you will act more negatively towards it.

Expectations and attitudes have immense impacts on the experiment. A participant is going to want to give the researcher the outcomes they want to see.

Extraneous variables can show up during the selection process. If each recruited person has a different experience with the experimenters, it can confuse the data and make the selection process less accurate.

Participant pools provide easy access for researchers to collect data. However, they may not provide the appropriate population for the study. These pools may not provide the diversity, life experiences, and personal situations needed to perform the study.

Every research study revolves around the participants and whether or not the researcher is able to work with them.

It is often not possible to have high validity in all areas. A researcher needs to decide which ones are the most important for that particular study and work with those more closely.

Operationalization: converting from the research question to the experiment design

External validity supports generalizing the results to people and situations beyond what is studied. The results are connected to ideas that are outside of the realm of the work but can be related to the outcomes from it.

Example of internal validity

Internal validity shows that two variables are related and that any differences between groups are caused by the independent variable

When considering which method to use, you should start with the within-subjects design. If it is not possible to use this method, then you should look into using the between-subjects method.

By making sure the order of conditions is randomized, it does not add confusion to the data. The researcher can know the order of the conditions is not affecting the data to be a poor representation of the results. Using a random order of conditions provides the most genuine results possible.

Types of carryover effect: practice effect (participants perform a task better in later conditions because they had the chance to practice), fatigue effect (participants perform a task worse in later conditions because they become tired or bored), and context effect (being tested in one condition can also change how participants perceive stimuli or interpret their task in later conditions)

Within-subjects experiments are extremely useful because they are the best way to control extraneous participant variables

Why do people's expectations and attitudes have such a strong impact on their health and the success of their treatments?

Wait-list control condition: participants are told that they will receive the treatment but must wait until the participants in the treatment condition have already received it

Placebo control condition: participants receive a placebo that looks much like the treatment but lacks the active ingredient or element thought to be responsible for the treatment's effectiveness

No-treatment control condition: the participants receive no treatment. This approach creates the problem of placebo effects. Placebo: a simulated treatment that lacks any active ingredient or element to make it effective Placebo effect: a positive effect of such treatment

Randomized clinical trial: the process of using treatment and control groups to determine whether or not a treatment is effective

Treatment condition: the person receives the treatment Control condition: the person does not receive the treatment

Treatment: an intervention meant to change people's behavior for the better

Random assignment: using a random process to decide which participants are tested in which conditions

Even though participants are tested within different conditions, it is important to keep the other aspects of all of the groups the same. If you have more than one thing that is different, it is impossible to compare the results from the different groups accurately.

Between-subjects experiment: each participant is tested in only one condition

Confounding variable: an extraneous variable that differs on average across levels of the independent variable

Two ways extraneous variables make it hard to detect the effect of the independent variable: add variability or noise to the data and become confounding variables

Manipulation check: a separate measure of the construct the researcher is trying to manipulate

Manipulate: to change an independent variable's level systematically so that different groups of participants are exposed to different levels of that variable, or the same group of participants is exposed to different levels at different times

Extraneous variables: variables other than the independent and dependent variable

Conditions: the different levels of the independent variable

To incorporate a theory into the research, distinguish the phenomenon from any other theories, identify existing theories of it, and come up with a hypothesis from it.

The hypothesis will prove to be strengthened if it is confirmed in a systematic empirical study. The hypothesis is weakened if it is not confirmed in this way.

To create an effective hypothesis, explore other theories on the same topic

Make the new theory more specific than the last one was

In order to build a strong theory, one must become knowledgeable about the phenomena and any previous theories.

This approach helps the previous research improve in that it makes them more theoretically motivated and theory-driven.

Stage theories: specify a series fo stages that people pass through as they develop or adapt to their environment

Functional theories: explain psychological phenomena in terms of their function or purpose

Theories vary in their formality, scope, and their theoretical ideas.

Formality: the extent to which the components of the theory and the relationships among them are specified clearly and in detail.

Theories are used for the organisation of phenomena, making predictions, generating new research, and to see a topic from multiple perspectives through multiple theories.

Theoretical framework: the context applied to understanding a phenomena.

Theory: a coherent explanation or interpretation of one or more phenomena. Includes descriptions of variables, structures, functions, processes, and organising principles

Replication gives a further insight into the behavior the research is studying. If the study is done again and the results come out the same way, it establishes a solid behavioral pattern.

Phenomenon: an established answer to a research question.

It is important to maintain your ethics throughout the whole process. Just because superiors are no longer keeping as much of a close eye on the study, does not mean that the ethics present within it should weaken.

Make sure the risks are worth the possible outcomes. If the risks are greater than the good that could come from it, then the study should not be done.

It is very important to make sure your study is free from each form of deception. In order to do this, the researcher should maintain clear and honest communication with the participants.

In order to eliminate risks, a researcher should modify the research design, use a pre-screening process, and actively work to maintain confidentiality.

As a researcher, you should know and understand your responsibilities. It is not an excuse for wrongdoings if you did not know about the standards. Even if you have to seek out the information on your own, it is important to have a clear understanding of your role in the research.

it is important to have data that is real and unique to the one particular study you are doing.

Deception: misinforming participants about the purpose of a study, using confederates, using phony equipment like Milgram’s shock generator, and presenting participants with false feedback about their performance.

It is extremely important to make sure each participant agrees to participate and is aware of all that the study entails.

There is always going to be ethical conflict within psychological research. It is how you handle it as a professional that is important.

ant researcher must take into account the three core principles: respect for dignity of persons and peoples, acting responsibly and with integrity, and social justice and responsibility to society.

In order to find effective sources, first look at the most recent materials. Then look for review articles to provide summaries of the topic. A final thing to look for is empirical research reports that would address your question or another similar question.

Using electronic databases is a great way to find resources about a topic. Because of the large array of content from different years, databases are an extremely valuable research tool.

Research literature is made up of materials from two main categories: professional journals and scholarly books. Professional journals: periodicals that publish original research articles. Scholarly books: books written by researchers and practitioners mainly for use by more of these same people.

In order to evaluate the feasibility, a researcher must evaluate these factors. The question will be used depending on the results of the rankings in these categories.

In order to evaluate the interestingness, a researcher must evaluate these three factors. Whether or not the question will be found usable will depend somewhat on how it ranks within these categories.

A research must evaluate their questions to figure out which ones are usable. In order to do this, the questions should be analyzed on the basis of their interestingness and the feasibility of answering it.

After deciding on a research topic, the next step is to turn it into an empirically testable research question. To do this, the question must have a single variable or a relationship between variables.

When coming up with a research question, three great resources for inspiration are informal observations, practical problems, and previous research.

One reason why this does not work is because sometimes the relationship can go both ways. It is not one set variable that causes the other because each of the variables can result in the occurrence of the other. The other reason this does not work is because there is sometimes a third variable that is the cause.

Just because a statistical relationship is present between two variables does not mean there is also a causal relationship present. Two variables being connected together does not necessarily mean that one of them caused the other to happen.

Positive relationship: when the score of one variable is high, so is the score of the other Negative relationship: when the score of one variable is high, the score of the other is low

This is a very common form of statistical relationships. This method is a head-to-head comparison of the data on tow groups with the same variable. This is used by comparing mean scores and standard deviations for each group.

These are the two main forms of statistical relationships. It is used to learn about possible causes, consequences, development, and organisation of the behaviors

Statistical relationship: when the average score on one variable differs systematically across the levels of the other one. This is what most research questions in psychology are about.

Operational definition: sets up how the variable is going to be measured within the research

Sample: a group of people used to represent a larger group of people Random sampling: every member of the populations has an equal chance of being selected for the sample Convenience sampling: the sample consists of people who happen to be nearby and willing to participate

Variables are the basis for all research. They are the points of interest in any research. The variables are what the data is collected on.

Empirically supported treatments: an empirically supported treatment is one that has been studied scientifically and shown to result in greater improvement than no treatment, a placebo, or some alternative treatment.

This is the definition of the clinical practice of psychology. This method is used to describe the activities of those who work to identify and help other people address their psychological problems.

This approach is based on the relationships among people and their social world as well as the natural world. This approach also favors complex, interconnected, and dynamic models with many parts.

Social Constructionism: an approach that emphasizes that knowledge is a constructed social process

Tolerance for uncertainty: Being able to accept that there things that we do not know

Scepticism: pausing to consider alternatives and to search for evidence

Confirmation bias: we tend to focus on cases that confirm our beliefs and not those that go against them.

Heuristics refers to the mental shortcuts we use to form and maintain our beliefs.

Folk psychology definition. Most of our folk psychology is not reasonably accurate.

Basic research is conducted for the sake of achieving a more detailed and accurate understanding of human behavior in general. Applied research is conducted to address some practical problem.

Psychological research is usually conducted by people with either a doctoral or master's degree. These researchers are often staff at a university, but they can also do research through other organizations.

The scientific research process is a continuous cycle that involves these steps.

Reasons to understand pseudoscience: provides a better understanding of the features of science, helps people differentiate between scientific fact and speculation, and to separate psychology from pseudopsychology.

Every scientific claim has to be falsifiable. In order for it to be considered scientific it needs to have observations that would go against it.

Something is pseudoscientific if it is missing one or more of the features of science.

Pseudoscience definition. It is something that is believed to be science, but it really is not

Publication is important because science is a social process and should be self-correcting.

Definition of public knowledge, which is the third feature of science.

Definition of empirical questions, which is the second feature.

Definition of systematic empiricism. It is also the first fundamental feature of the scientific approach

Scientific perspective: a general approach to understanding the natural world

In the same way that each student learns differently, every child has their own way of showing what they have learned. Because students are unique in these capacities, teachers should strive to adapt to these different styles. There are many students who have learned and understand a concept extremely well but are not good test takers. In this way, their knowledge cannot be accurately assessed. In order to ensure that each child has an accurate representation of their learning, it is crucial for teachers to incorporate a wide variety of learning assessments within their classroom.

What amount of each element should a teacher have in their classroom? What makes a healthy balance between teamwork and self-sufficient learning?

Enabling students to use their creativity and passions in different way in the classroom makes their overall learning experience more enjoyable. Leaving a project more open ended when it comes what avenue is used to show the different required components creates a deeper connection between the child and their learning. Students could show their understanding of an assigned story's events by creating a skit, a video summary, or even a board game.

This concept is gives students a great opportunity to take ownership of their learning. In situations like these, the student is able to focus on what they believe they could improve on. Because the student is the one who set the goal, they will likely be more motivated to learn and develop their skills in this area. Just like we saw with the "Learner-centered Psychological Principles," the more motivated a child feels to learn, the better their educational experience will be.

If teachers group students by academic ability, it allows each student to continue to grow in their education. Separating students with this method ensures that each student will become more skilled in that specific area, no matter where they are on the spectrum. The students who are at or above grade level in the area will continue to improve by receiving more challenging material. Likewise, students who are below grade level will improve to reach the grade level with appropriate material.

If you write one or two things on each page, it helps you understand the topic of every part of the article

Annotating helps you understand the text while you are reading it and allows you to help you when you are working with it afterwards.

It is important to recognize that annotating should be done for yourself. You should use it as a tool to help your learning.

It is important to annotate what we think about while we are reading to connect what the text is explaining and our understanding of the topic.

Test