Today, the limited schooling that takes place in lower-income countries reflects the national culture. In Iran, for example, schooling is closely tied to Islam. Similarly, schooling in Bangladesh (Asia), Zimbabwe (Africa), and Nicaragua (Latin America) has been shaped by the distinctive cultural traditions of these nations.

Families are not needed for people to reproduce, but they do help maintain existing patterns of social organization. Parents pass on their own social identity—in terms of race, ethnicity, religion, and social class—to their children at birth.