The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.

The brainstem regulates vital functions like heart rate, breathing, and swallowing.

several regions, each responsible for specific tasks:

sternocleidomastoid

The diaphragm and accessory muscles, essential for breathing, can also be affected. Diaphragm fatigue can occur due to the increased work of breathing, as seen i

In neuromuscular conditions, diaphragm paralysis can severely reduce inspiratory capacity

simple reflexes

acts as the body’s communication highway, transmitting signals between the brain, spinal cord, and every other part of the body

Frontal Bone: Forms the forehead and the roof of the orbits (eye sockets). Parietal Bones (2): Form the sides and roof of the cranium. Temporal Bones (2): Form the sides of the cranium, housing the ears. Occipital Bone: Forms the back and base of the cranium.

These bones form the main structure of the cranium and directly enclose the brain. They include:

Normal perfusion, the adequate delivery of oxygenated blood and removal of waste products at the cellular level, relies on three essential components: a functioning pump (the heart), an adequate blood volume, and an intact container (the blood vessels). The heart must generate sufficient pressure and cardiac output to circulate blood effectively.

Arteries, with their muscular walls, carry blood away from the heart, branching into smaller arterioles and then into the capillary beds, where the crucial exchange of gases and nutrients occurs at the tissue level.

The heart, a muscular organ, acts as a dual pump. The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and propels it to the lungs for oxygenation (pulmonary circulation), while the left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it throughout the body (systemic circulation)

Veins, although low-pressure vessels, also contain smooth muscle and are influenced by the autonomic nervous system, aiding in the return of blood to the heart, sometimes against gravity.

Arteries and arterioles possess smooth muscle in their walls, allowing them to contract (vasoconstriction) and dilate (vasodilation) to regulate blood flow to different tissues based on their metabolic demands.

complex system of organs and vessels to achieve these tasks.

simultaneously removing waste products.

transporting vital substances throughout the body.

e control centers or the neural pathways that transmit signals to the respiratory muscles.

brainstem

Neural regulation of respiration

filtration process

Inside the nose, specialized cells and structures like cilia and mucous membranes trap dust, pollen, and other foreign particles, preventing them from reaching the lower respiratory tract.

The upper airway is the initial pathway for air to enter the respiratory system, a complex and vital process for life. It begins with the nose, the primary entry point for air.

abnormal breath sounds usually found using a stethoscope) sounds like gurgling (often due to fluid in the airway), stridor (a high-pitched sound indicating upper airway obstruction), or wheezing (a whistling sound associated with lower airway constriction) are present

Adequate ventilation is achieved with minimal effort; there should be no signs of respiratory distress, such as accessory muscle use, nasal flaring, or abnormal positioning.

Its effectiveness depends on obtaining a proper mask seal and squeezing the bag at the correct rate: once every five to six seconds for adults and once every three seconds for infants or children.

Indications for PPVD use include inadequate ventilation, apnea, and cardiac arrest.

Commonly used PPVDs in EMS include pocket masks and bag-valve-masks (BVMs)

This technique requires practice and precision to avoid causing further injury.

effectively moving the tongue forward and opening the airway without manipulating the neck.

The modified jaw thrust is the preferred technique when cervical spine injury is suspected

as seen with drug overdoses, head injuries, or neurological diseases.

severe asthma attack, air cannot reach the lungs

Sometimes the problem lies in ventilation.

Inadequate respiration

hypoxia

, capillary permeability, and the metabolic demands of the tissues.

internal respiration

The left ventricle then propels the oxygenated blood out into the systemic circulation, delivering it to all tissues and organs of the body.

venules

pulmonary capillaries,

cartilage rings,

gas exchange.

primary organs of respiration

pharynx

trachea

angioedema

benign

obstruction by the tongue

sternum

There are 12 pairs of ribs, each connected to the thoracic vertebrae (the bones of the spine) at the back.

bony framework that protects the vital organs within the chest, such as the heart and lungs. It’s composed of three main elements:

Furthermore, the thoracic cage provides essential support for the shoulder girdle and upper limbs, enabling a wide range of movement and activities.

oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Conversely, during exhalation, the ribs move downwards and inwards, reducing the chest cavity volume and expelling air from the lungs.

thoracic cage

e world around us, respond to stimuli, move, think, feel, and learn.

body’s communication

responsible for controlling all bodily functions, f

circulatory system

circulatory

organ failure

metabolic dysfunction

leading to cellular hypoxia,

life-sustaining process of perfusion,