The persistence of vir-ulent racism in the United States and its most blatant manifestation inrigid, legalized segregation in the South gave the lie to U.S. claims forleadership of the “free” world and became a stock-in-trade of Communistpropaganda
Jim Crow as a tool of communist propaganda
eyday of decolonization, more than one hundred newnations came into being, creating a fertile breeding ground for great-power competition.
Decolonization led to fervent competition between the 2 blocs
wage the conflict largely through client states, diplomacy, propaganda,and threats of force.
Threat of nuclear was led to proxy wars
The extension of thecontainment policy to Southeast Asia put the United States on the wrongside of nationalist revolutions, laying the basis for war in Vietnam
US tried to hold back the force of nationalist revolutions with dire consequences
president unwisely refused to seek congressional authorization for fear ofsetting a precedent that might bind his successors, suggesting the extentto which the Cold War had already shattered traditional attitudes on suchissues
This refusal to ask congressional approval would become a trend in later cold war conflicts
bove all, it pressed for a huge boost in de-fense spending to support a massive buildup of nuclear and conventionalarms.
US increase in military strength began now
he Truman administration approved NSC-49advocating that the United States “block further Communist expansionin Asia.”
Beginning of US intervention in Asia
it seemed to shift theglobal balance of power against the United States
Shifting of security concerns to Asia would become a major point of US national security
Again, whatever is in accord with nature is best, for in all things nature does what is best.
St.Thomas uses nature as the cruxe of his argument
Furthermore, it is evident that several persons could by no means preserve the stability of the community if they totally disagreed. For union is necessary among them if they are to rule at all: several men, for instance, could not pull a ship in one direction unless joined together in some fashion.
The one can preserve stability more than several
Therefore the rule of one man is more useful than the rule of many.
Key point
Now it is manifest that what is itself one can more efficaciously bring about unity than several
One is more able to preserve unity than the several
"Where there is no governor, the people shall fall."
King acts as the governor
there are many men together and each one is looking after his own interest, the multitude would be broken up and scattered unless there were also an agency to take care of what appertains to the common weal.
If each man is looking for his own interest, then there needs to be a body to combine those interests into the common
t is therefore natural that man should live in the society of many.
Necessary for men to live in a society
Wherefore, if man were intended to live alone, as many animals do, he would require no other guide to his end.
Man as a social animal, requires leadership
Consequently man needs some directive principle to guide him towards his end.
King as the directive agent
the British concluded that the possible gains of war with theUnion would not be worth the risks. For all his bluster and meddlesome-ness, Napoleon followed London’s lead. The Union was also lucky thatthe Civil War took place when Europe was as unstable as at any timesince Waterloo. The distractions caused by its internal conflict and the re-sulting great power divisions rendered intervention less likely
Key Point
In terms of Manifest Destiny, Americans continued tobelieve that Canadians would opt for republicanism, but they respectedthe principle of self-determination rather than seeking to impose theirviews by force
MD stops at Canada
ut they increasinglydoubted it would be used.
Doubt over threat of Canada
hey passionately op-posed the acquisition of new slave states
Abolitionist against expansionism
Theavailability of new land in the West and acquisition of new markets forfarm products would preserve the essentially agricultural economy uponwhich republicanism depended
Southern support for expansion
he nation’s remarkable success increasingly turned optimisminto arrogance, however, and repeated clashes with Indians and Mexi-cans created a need to justify the exploitation of weaker people.
Key Point.
More often than not, Manifest Destiny covered and attempted to legit-imate selfish motive
Key Point
Some Americans argued that if the United States did not take Texas andCalifornia, the British and French would. At least, they might try to sus-tain independent republics that could threaten the security of the UnitedStates
National Security concerns over Manifest Destiny
oined in 1845 by the Democratic Party journalistJohn L. O’Sullivan to justify annexation of Texas, Oregon, and California,the phrase meant, simply defined, that God had willed the expansion of theUnited States to the Pacific Ocean—or beyond. The concept expressed theexuberant nationalism and brash arrogance of the era
Key Point
t expressed the spirit of the age and provided a ringing,if still premature, statement of U.S. preeminence in the hemisphere. Itpublicly reaffirmed the continental vision Adams had already privatelyshared with the British and Russians: “Keep what is yours but leave therest of the continent to us.
Key point
On the most pressing issue, he setforth a non-intervention principle, warning the Holy Allies and Francethat the United States would regard as “dangerous” to its “peace andsafety” any European effort to “extend their system to any portion of thehemisphere.”
Key point
Whatever its attitudes toward Latin America, the United States couldonly view with alarm the possibility of European intervention. The threatrevived memories of those early years when the omnipresent reality of for-eign intrusion endangered the very survival of the new republic. It couldforeclose commercial opportunities that now seemed open in the hemi-sphere.
Key point
nation en-joyed a rare period of “free” security in which to develop without majorexternal threats.
Key point
Europe’s imperial urge did not slacken, andfrom 1800 to 1878 the amount of territory under its control almost dou-bled.2 But the focus shifted from the Americas to Asia and Africa.
US safety allowed for its territorial expansionism to grow
In sum, by the r 570s and r 5 8os newly designed forts had givendefenders a strategic advantage over besiegers in each of the sultan-ates of the northern Deccan. This, in turn, lowered the level ofinter-state warfare, froze inter-state boundaries and allowed the sul-tanates to devote their energies to patronizing cultural projects thatwere both distinctive and remarkable
Key Point
The perfect plot, accordingly, must have a single,and not (as some tell us) a double issue; the change in the subject’s fortunes mustbe not from bad fortune to good, but on the contrary from good to bad; and thecause of it must lie not in any depravity, but in some great fault on his part
Key point
ence poetry is something more philosophicand of graver import than history, since its statements are of the nature rather ofuniversals, whereas those of history are singulars.
Key point
mitation is natural to man from childhood, oneof his advantages over the lower animals being this, that he is the most imitativecreature in the world, and learns at first by imitation
Imitation
But the inhabitants of either orboth may exercise their primitive rights, and solicit a unionwith us. They will certainly do no such thing to Great Britain.By joining with her, therefore, in her proposed declaration, wegive her a substantial and perhaps inconvenient pledge againstourselves, and really obtain nothing in return.
Adams reasoning
because the power ofGreat Britain being greater than ours to seise upon them, weshould get the advantage of obtaining from her .the samedeclaration we should make ourselves
Calhoun's reasoning
he objectof Canning appears to have been to obtain some public pledgefrom the Government of the United States, ostensibly againstthe forcible interference of the Holy Alliance between Spainand South America
Canning proposal is for a joint rejection of the reintroduction of Spanish rule
et the two English-speaking states simultaneouslycompeted for market supremacy, strategic superiority, and to establish clientsand allies within the new Latin American states
Collaborative competition
he framers of the 1823 message, as well as laterproponents of the Monroe Doctrine, concluded that only by controlling the entireWestern Hemisphere—and, consequently, the new states of Latin America—would the United States be able to survive, develop, and ultimately replace theempires of the Old World.
Key point
The greatest fear of US statesmen was that these internaland external vulnerabilities would merge, transforming their independent unioninto fractious colonial dependencies, virtual western pawns of the Europeanbalance of power.
Key point
US statesmen would have no choice but to levy high taxes, create astanding army, and centralize political power. But these actions would inthemselves endanger the union by contravening established political practices,perhaps even leading disillusioned Americans into the arms of Old World
Fear of secession from the Union into the arms of Europe
Oldconcerns about Western separatism resurfaced during the Monroe cabinet’sdiscussions
Union would break up under threat from European powers
personal responsibility gave authority to those who were less interested in forgingnational unity than in establishing their own independence
No union yet
Supplies of British goods and capital were determined far more byconditions in Britain and the world market than by conditions in the UnitedStates. Consequently, Britain was able to exercise a much greater degree ofeconomic influence on the United States than the Republic was able to exert onBritain.
UK major stakeholders in US economy
Indeed, the UnitedStates relied on the Royal Navy for protection against external threats
US dependence on UK
Eliminating their primarymeans of support would help quell the Indian menace and open theNorthwest to American expansion. In a broader sense, the elimination ofBritish power from North America would enhance U.S. security
American security
Persuaded by May that no settlement was likely, andwith the approaching election putting a premium on action of somekind, Madison submitted a war message to Congress.
Madison's decision to continue Non-Intercourse and inability to control his Congressmen led him to war
he threat of Indian warfare on the frontier, which Americans alsoconveniently blamed on Britain, added to an already long list of griev-ances
Indian Warfare was another grievance
nlike Adams a decade earlier, the president did not fan the martialspirit. He closed American ports to Royal Navy ships and demanded notmerely reparation but British abandonment of impressmen
Grievances
The residue of Anglo-phobia left from the Revolution deepened as the crisis intensified. Out-raged by British insults to their honor, Americans insisted on demandsLondon could not possibly meet, placing the two nations on a collisioncourse
Main grievances were impressment of American sailors and the seizing of American ships and trade
y this time, the resumption of war withEngland was imminent. Desperate for money and angry at Spain, he ig-nored the Treaty of San Ildefonso and sold the United States all ofLouisiana instead of simply New Orleans for funds to underwrite waragainst England.
Napoleon's weakness as well as the delay of taking over Louisiana caused Napoleon to sell the territory
A chance to do so to an extent he could not possibly have imaginedcame with the Louisiana crisis of 1802–3 and the acquisition of a vast newterritory.
Jefferson's belief in expansionism led to the Louisiana purchase
efferson’s expansionism represents the fullest expression of his national-ism and republicanism
Jefferson's belief in expansionism
Eager toprove to North Africans—and Europeans—that the United States wouldmeet force with force, he dispatched four ships to the Mediterranean to“protect our commerce and chastise their insolence” by “sinking, burning,or destroying their ships and Vessels.
Jefferson went to war to prove the power of the United States and to prevent the extortion of its commercial business by so called "savages". He also believed that more appeasement of the Barbary states would lead to greater demands. This was a sharp shift from the pacifism that he practiced elsewhere as well as his desire to cut expenditures
He was certain that appeasement encouraged more outra-geous demands.
Reasons for war
Genuine political and economic freedom required a populationof independent landowners engaged in productive enterprises
Independent landowners
A republican population de-manded, in turn, access to foreign markets to ensure continued outlets forAmerica’s agricultural surpluses and the availability of sufficient land toprovide an economic basis for freedom for a rapidly expanding people
Jefferson believed that in order to preserve the Republic, that the nation would need to expand territorialy and commercially to provide land and opportunity for its people
is inaugural commit-ment to “peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations—entangling alliances with none” echoed in less qualified terms
Jeffersons aims
hey secured release from theFrench alliance, making possible a truly independent foreign policy
No more entangling alliances
The removal ofBritish troops from U.S. soil, along with Spanish recognition of the south-ern boundary and granting of access to the Mississippi, eased the foreignthreat to frontier communities, curbed secessionist impulses among west-erners, and facilitated incorporation of the West into the Union
Security concerns lifted
Insisting on its rights to trade with both major belligerents, the UnitedStates suffered heavy losses in shipping but achieved major gains in for-eign trade. Exports increased from $20 million in 1792 to more than $94million in 1801, imports from $23 million in 1790 to $110 million in 1801,and the reexport trade jumped from $1 million in 1792 to nearly $50 mil-lion in 1800. This prosperity was based on unusual conditions, to be sure,but it provided a foundation for future economic growth
Expansion of commerce
Despite their partisanship and occasional excess, the Federalists skill-fully guided the United States through a perilous era. Displaying oppor-tunism and pragmatism in time of crisis, they exploited the European warto America’s advantage while scrupulously avoiding the full-scale involve-ment that would have been disastrous at this stage of the nation’s growth
Forcing concessions from France, Spain, and England as they were busy during the war
of that conflict until 1815 perpetuated the threat to the United States, butseverance of ties with France rendered its situation much less compli-cated. The nation would not be a party to another “entangling alliance”until the mid-twentieth century
No more entangling alliances
nfluenced byexperience dating to the colonial period, he stressed the importance of anindependent course free of emotional attachments and wherever possiblebinding political commitments to other nations
Independent course but with some attachments
His ref-erences to alliances set forth a view common among Americans that theirnation, founded on exceptional principles and favored by geography,could best achieve its destiny by preserving its freedom of action.
Freedom of action was a key part of US foreign policy
ally no restrictions and also gained access to the much-coveted West In-dian trade,
Britain's preoccupation with the war allowed for favorable terms
ut they served the national interest as well.Desperately in need of U.S. foodstuffs, France purchased large quantitiesof grain and permitted American ships to transport supplies from its WestIndian colonies to its home ports, a right generally denied under mercan-tilist doctrine. Hundreds of American ships swarmed into the Caribbeanand across the Atlantic to “fatten on the follies” of the Old World
War and revolution was profitable for the US and opened commerce lanes previously denied to them.
fter long andsometimes bitter debates and frequently over Jefferson’s objections, thecabinet had hammered out a neutrality policy that construed Americanobligations under the French alliance as narrowly as possible
Hamilton's dislike of France
They also recognized that war would significantlyincrease demands for their products and might open ports previouslyclosed. As a neutral the United States could trade with all nations,
Neutrality would allow for greater expansion of commerce for the nation
that to become too closely attached to either powercould result in a loss of freedom of action, even independence.
To become too closely attached meant a loss of independence
Americans had long agreed they must abstain from Europe’s wars, andthe new nation’s still fragile position in 1793 underscored the urgency ofneutrality.
The fragility of the US position necessitated neutrality
Returning to Japan to search for a new way of life, Akira's professionalgoals suddenly seemed meaningless to him. Soon after his return he pickedup a book published by Aum Shinrikyo, and was impressed with the group'steachings on Armageddon. Akira stated that Aum Shinrikyo attracts manyyounger people like himself who have studied science and technology. "S
Attraction of Aum Shinrikyo is for the elite.
pendyears in Tokyo's meritocratic rat race, when overnight you can become amover-and-shaker in Om's Construction, Intelligence, or Health and WelfareMinistry. 1
Young Japanese believed Aum was a path to a better life.
"elect" religious elite.
Elitism was a major part of the Aum appeal.
Students of Japanese religion identify two surges of New Religions-thosethat grew rapidly in the 1950s and 1960s (shinshukyo), many of which haveprewar roots, and the New New Religions (shinshinshukyo) that haveemerged since the 1970s.
The surge of new religions led to the rise of Aum
The ultimate objective behind the sarin production was to overthrow the presentJapanese government and establish the new government of Aum Shinrikyo.
Motivation for Aum Shinrikyo.
he next generation, born in 1960-s, was much less idealistic in its aims: money for them was not anultimate goal, but just a way to provide their living; young people were seeking spiritual enlightenment more thaneconomical welfare.
Spiritual enlightenment was something Aum provided
hierarchic and strict: one must follow the necessary rules from the early childhood. Even in school, society beginsto control the individual, and being a collectivistic culture
Stringency of Japanese culture was major reason for Aum popularity
n 10 years Aum Shinrikyo became apowerful cult owning a hospital, several restaurants and foreign offices.
Aum Shinrikyo was quite popular