The debate over the Anthropocene poses a dilemma between scientists and historians on the nature of humanity. Should we be classified as a species, now a geologic force capable of changing the Earth, or as something above, aware and responsible for our own actions. Historians see the word “species” as potentially dangerous and oversimplistic. If humans are like animals, it devalues the complex social, economic, and global systems we’ve created, and leads to essentialism. However, Wilson and Crutzen recommend a long view of “deep history”, which includes the early beginnings of man, before recorded history. The Anthropocene didn’t start on any specific date or time but instead happened as humanity slowly expanded its influence and power. Our species has caused the climate to change, which threatens biological and geological conditions necessary for the survival of life on the planet. The “long summer” of the Holocene that allowed for human life is in danger of ending. In addition, the claim of categorizing humanity as a species leading to essentialism demonstrates a lack of understanding of biology and evolution. All species are dynamic and constantly adapting to their environment. Learning is an important part of the climate change problem and designating humanity as a biological element in the process gives more background data to pull from (O”Neill et al, 2006). While globalism and capitalism have definitely added to the problem of climate change in recent years, humanity has been building toward it for a much longer time in numerous different ways.

Brian C. O'Neill , Paul Crutzen , Arnulf Grübler , Minh Ha Duong , Klaus Keller , Charles Kolstad , Jonathan Koomey , Andreas Lange , Michael Obersteiner , Michael Oppenheimer , William Pepper , Warren Sanderson , Michael Schlesinger , Nicolas Treich , Alistair Ulph , Mort Webster & Chris Wilson (2006) Learning and climate change, , 6:5, 585-589, DOI: 10.1080/14693062.2006.9685623

The history of landscape architecture should also be traced back and studied before the modern era when the term originated. The beginnings of landscape are as old as humanity, as seen with the two oldest archetypes, the walled garden, and clearing in a forest. As our knowledge and awareness of the natural world increases, we are paying special attention to the impact of society. However, it is important to remember that humanity is also part of the natural world. The health of the landscape and humanity are linked, at geologic and biological levels. The relationship and connections of people to their local environment can influence how they see the influence of climate change. The Great Acceleration also has influenced people and their local environments. The urban park in Singapore, Gardens by the Bay, shows the influence of industrial and anthropogenic material on the landscape. Manmade metal structures imitate natural ones, and even the ground is artificially made. Humans are able to create land, mimic biological qualities, and show elevated power over the rest of the natural world.

Native species are important to use in landscapes for a multitude of reasons. Burle Marx was a champion for doing so. This passage about mutual adaptation is one of the reasons that natives are more ecologically beneficial for the surrounding ecosystems than exotics. Marx writes from a culture that he believes fears or is disdainful of the native vegetation and forests. Widespread deforestation for agriculture, lumber, or other development is a recurring problem in Brazil. He wants to educate people on the benefits of native plants and increase their popularity and use. This is an ongoing movement in the US presently as well, with nonnatives like Crepe Myrtle and Bradford Pear very commonly used in new landscapes. We know that there are benefits from using native species, especially for wildlife, but understanding specific reasons why is also important. Mutual adaptation results from species that are in contact for long periods of time to improve their efficiency of interaction. Nonnatives that are not aggressive like invasive species are essentially harmless, and can even fill the basic role of a native species. But the years of practice and evolution that native species have makes it more effective with its interactions with the species around it.

Mutual adaptation occurs when species that have a high level of interaction with each other evolve together over time to be better adapted to work together. This synergy between species leads to increased diversity in an ecosystem as they create and fulfill specialized niches. Also known as mutualistic interactions, or mutualism, they develop over tens of thousands of years as individual species develop more intense relationships with others. Plant-pollinators are one of the most obvious examples because almost 75% of flowering plants receive pollinator from animals. When a pollinator insect goes through many generations in close proximity to species, they both gradually change to make it easier or more enticing to continue to interact. Pollinators gain resources or protection from the plants, and the plants use the animal as a pollination or reproduction vector. Both species, however, are also adapting to compete with other similar species. The plants adapt more successful strategies at attracting insect pollinators like complex forms and increased nectar production to gain pollinators’ preference over other species. Competition is the driving force behind mutual adaptation. The species are not behaving altruistically, they change for their own selfish reasons: survival.

Landry, C. (2010) Mighty Mutualisms: The Nature of Plant-pollinator Interactions. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):37

Marx writes from a time where the United States is increasingly becoming a global superpower. Cities had become huge industrial centers while many people were moving out of the city to the suburbs. This passage, however, is concerned with the moment in time when we started down this path. At this point he views the American landscape as still somewhat intact. But when the take-off happens, the quiet serenity of nature is broken by the sounds of industrialism. Marx sees the literary troupe of a quiet landscape “alienated” by a train. Being unable to hear the sounds of the natural world over the looming industrial growth causes a longing for what is now missing. It was this urge that led to some of the old city parks by Olmstead, like New York’s Central Park. Having an area large enough to hide the sounds of the city with a natural landscape. And it is captured in literature of the time through this troupe of interruption.

American economist Walt Rostow created a model to define the stages of economic growth a country goes through, starting at hunter-gatherer all the way to modern urban society. The “take-off” stage is the third out of five and is characterized by urbanization and industrialization increases along with technological breakthroughs. These advances take the economy from primarily producing primary goods, like raw materials and natural resources, to secondary finished goods like clothing. In his model, the take-off stage marks the beginning of a furious 150 year climb toward the final stage. It is characterized by mostly unchecked economic growth with little regard for other parts of society. Undeveloped land is quickly consumed in order to continue feeding the expanding economic engine of a country. A take-off in stage three has to be sustained, which results in continuous urban and industrial expansion. As the population shifts increasingly to urban from rural, people are exposed to the natural environment less and less. Desirable land in urban centers is quickly consumed. Parks must be previously existing or well funded, otherwise, they will be located far away or on undesirable land that was passed over by other developments. The erasure of natural scenery from cities led to people longing for the pastoral ideal because it is the opposite of the city. The pastoral ideal of large open fields contrasts with the tall enclosed spaces in cities.

Rostow, W. W. (1963). Leading Sectors and the Take-off. The Economics of Take-Off into Sustained Growth, 25-33.

The early environmentalists Padua writes about take a stance on environmental problems that is similar to the conservationists in the 20th century, and even more similar to Guha and India due to the colonial layer. Native farming practices mixed with European colonial economic policies led to widespread environmental destruction and a general lack of care and foresight about the future of the country’s natural resources. Navarro and Lisboa saw the potential disasters that could unfold if dangerous farming practices and plantations continued. The Atlantic forest was devastated to provide fuel and land for sugar cane. At the same time, land was being cleared, farmed until barren, and then abandoned instead of using more sedentary practices, with the plow agreed upon as an effective fix. Ultimately, the early environmentalists proposed modernization to mitigate human impacts on the countries resources. These changes positively affected the environment, but the main goal was to increase the economic efficiency of the land’s resources.

The modern environmentalist movement in Brazil began around the same time as much of the rest of the world in the early 1970s (Viola). Although it began as an apolitical movement for the first years, it would eventually end up identifying as a political one that actively participated in local and national politics. The original intent to remain apolitical was due to many factors including repressive regimes and local dissent and general distrust of the government. The movement opted to work on growing its base from the general population rather than the government that was not trustworthy enough to uphold any lofty environmentalist ideals. The situation in the time of Lisboa and Navarro was also one of complicated politics, as the future of Brazil was controlled by Portugal. And the decisions made by Portugal about the management of the colony’s vast natural resources and its inhabitants. The resources allowed Brazil to escape from colonialism through economic power by exploiting them, a problem that was revived in the early 1970s.

Viola, E. J. (1988). The ecologist movement in Brazil (1974-1986): From environmentalism to ecopolitics. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 12(2), 211-228.

Ephemerality is a concept that we studied in Studio I with our mandala project. The careful observation of an unremarkable piece of land changed our perception of natural processes that were not previously important or even something we thought about before. The journey is more important than the destination to Kenko, and the things that happen along the way are what makes an experience truly beautiful. While “uncivilized bumpkins” may observe and enjoy the trumpet creeper’s flowers, it is far more beautiful to see them before when the sepals are swollen and about to burst open. The Japanese concept of mono no aware is perfectly represented in this passage. The emotions contained in small moments after a long period of waiting while also understanding it cannot last is the pinnacle of beauty, however fleeting.

Eastern tradition and western tradition both have religious hermits that break away from society and focus their energy only on themselves. The Buddhist hermit Kenko had his book of essays published after his death, which is appropriate given the contents of the essays. The collection is a popular representation of the concept of “mono no aware” which relates to the passage of time and sorrow. As a hermit, Kenko wrote down his essays as fragments of his thoughts that were later compiled by a friend after his death. His focus on ephemorality and beauty intensified by brevity is shown in passage 137. In it, he asserts that the beginning and end are the most captivating while also creating the strongest emotional response, whether positive or negative. The beginning is a sense of excitement and aniticpation, while the end is sorrow, anger, solemness. It is these emotions that change brings on that can intensify beauty. He even goes as far as to say that the before or after of something is an even more beautiful moment than the thing itself. It is the opposite of finding the most beauty in spontaneity, which Kenko links to uneducated oafs who do not wait. They exist solely in the moment, switching from one thing to another without any anticipation or patience for future events. The opening lines of passage 137 clearly depict the beauty in waiting for a moment, and later reflecting on it. The important Japanese cultural event of cherry blossom blooms is a relatively brief and very beautiful event, but the trees on the verge of bloom are more poignant and moving.

New World Encyclopedia. (n.d.). Yoshida Kenko. Retrieved October 22, 2020, from https://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Yoshida_Kenko

Tagore gives the perspective that is relatively recent, early 1900s, about how the eastern culture viewed nature compared to the western perspective. This contrast is very clear in India, a country dealing with the western imperialist rule under the British. India was already subject to ideas on how to protect nature such as german forest management, largely a failure in the different climate of India. The western approach to protecting nature was tended to be empirical and scientific, products of the Enlightenment. Eastern culture had always embraced nature as a spiritual element that linked people to the planet and should be kept close. This reading relates his feelings towards people living with nature in nature, and the struggle that occurs between it and man. He believes it is important not to struggle against it and try to secure a place of your own and take over nature. The monuments and structures built may seem solid to people, but over time nature will continue existing and they will crumble or fade.

The author of the selection, Rabindranath Tagore, was an Indian poet, among other things, and had a widespread impact on the area and the world. Nature was one of many topics he contemplated and wrote about. Religion and nature are closely linked in many eastern cultures, and Tagore seems to go beyond this association by including man as part of the equation, but still separate from them. He believed in man’s ability to love and respect nature as the way to harmony with it, as opposed to western beliefs like urban forestry in Germany. In the selected passage, he comes to the realization that nature is unbound and limitless, completely independent of man. We exist within it and go about tasks that, to Nature, are meaningless and temporary. Man has created an environment where his daily life is much darker and confined than if he was free to roam the land which is seemingly unending. He can be considered an environmental philosopher because of the spiritual focus on it he had, and his many writings that revealed the relationships people had to their environment (Saharia). His view was for local caretaking of the area around you as the correct way to appreciate and maintain, both for moral and aesthetic reasons.

SAHARIA, B. (2018). RABINDRANATH TAGORE ON ENVIRONMENT : A PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY (Master's thesis, Dibrugarh University) (pp. 190-196). Centre for Studies in Philosophy Dibrugarh University.

This passage reveals the author’s very positive view of Marsh and his ideas and observations. No doubt Marsh was a trailblazer in the future field of ecology. His ideas of conservation were part of a base for the US Government’s plan for maintaining the ecological health of its land. However, there seems to be some debate about whether these practices were helpful in both keeping forests and other natural resources safe. In India, German forestry management practices have resulted in a loss of forest in 25% of the lands that were managed this way. There was also a negative impact on the perception of native agriculture and land management practices, especially those that used fire clear land. In the present, the problems with using only a conservation strategy are widely recognized, and preservation is another option that is more aggressive in protecting wild land. While conservation looks at nature with an economic mind frame, preservation is based on the inherent natural value of the land, not just keeping production up.

George Perkins Marsh was one of the first to document a thorough reflection on the human activity on the landscapes and its ability to be sustainable. He had the view of man as a caretaker of the earth, similar to the Garden of Eden creation story, who alone was capable of guiding the direction of nature and the planet. Through observation of the environment in Vermont and Italy over many years, he formulated theories about the need to protect natural resources in the present so they could be used by future generations. He stated ideas that we associate now with ecology, but his primary goal was more economic in nature. He did not believe that pristine, untouched nature was an efficient and worthy use (Gade). In an address for an agricultural society in Vermont, he said “America offers the forest example of civilized man and barbaric uncultivated nature”(Gade). Rather, he favored the productive landscapes that offered economic gain. This could be direct, like replanting harvested timber so the resource would be available again in the future, or indirect like the positive effects a forest would have on local precipitation or erosion. To Marsh, the natural environment was there to benefit people, but at the same time, we have a duty to maintain and protect it from ourselves. The vital resources that all people need should be trusted to something with foresight and the ability to see the long term. He appealed to realism by promoting the positive economic value that would be made available in the future. Marsh was not concerned with fighting the constant tide of urbanization or settlement. He sees himself as practical and is therefore unconcerned about difficult and unpredictable patterns of human development, only studying how to squeeze the most we can from the landscape while not hindering the future.

Gade, D. (1983). The Growing Recognition of George Perkins Marsh. Geographical Review, 73(3), 341-344. doi:10.2307/214840

Europeans were able to control the flow of goods between themselves and their colonies while the natives were forced to deal with the widespread consequences of newly introduced species. Diseases, animals, and plants were all exchanged purposely and accidentally between cultures. The spread of these things accelerated as the world became more globalized and the exchange became practically uncontrollable. The question raised by the reading is how European plants and animals were able to insert themselves into new environments and expel the native species? And furthermore, how should we feel about the introduction of productive and helpful species like cattle and honey bees that are not native but now could be considered necessary? The author also speaks about how unsuccessful foreign plants and animals are at establishing themselves in Europe. Crosby believes that this disparity was caused by many factors, both anthropogenic and biological. The ability to adapt aggressively was caused by European plants exposed earlier to new stresses from the Neolithic revolution. The ability of species to adapt to human stimuli can be a distinct advantage in a human dominated world.

Recently, the honey bee has become a flashpoint for publicity as their numbers have been fluctuating, reaching dangerously low levels. It became a symbol of the symbiotic relationship between nature and human agriculture, as they are responsible for a large portion of crop pollination on multiple continents (Weber). The European honeybee is the preferred species, and it is now widespread throughout the world. Presently they are thought of as a native species that is integral in helping crop pollination, but as the name suggests, they did not originate in North America. The spread of European honeybees is due to Europeans bringing the bees with them when they colonized other places. Like other domesticated animals, bees were brought because of their ability to produce food; honey. And like many other European animals, the bees were able to establish themselves and spread without the help of humans once in a new land. What is the difference between an invasive species, an exotic, and a native one? They honeybee can be considered domesticated to a degree, but they can also be wild. Unlike large domesticated animals, they are less likely to be a nuisance when feral and create only minor problems. The honeybee lies somewhere in between domesticated and naturalized in North America, but to the Native Americans, it was a sign of the presence of foreign invaders. The term invasive species is not the most accurate or specific way to refer to a species, especially one that has become crucial to part of the new place.

Weber, E. (2012). Apis mellifera: The Domestication and Spread of European Honey Bees for Agriculture in North America. University of Michigan Undergraduate Research Journal, (9), 20-23.

Interesting that Bacon does not equate nature with the sciences. He seems to be saying man is not capable of changing nature. When the New World was first discovered, and tales of the endless bounty it possessed were widely exaggerated and spread, I wonder if this way of thinking impacted these stories. They may have thought there was no way their actions would impact nature because of its vastness and status above humanity.

In the 17th century, England was experiencing rapid growth in many different ways. The Industrial Revolution was beginning to spin up and the country was looking for ways to prepare for rapid change. As they began to reach the limits of the limited land on the island, they turned to practices like colonialism to increase their resources. Natural resources, specifically land, were the most limiting factors, and while colonialism was one way to remedy this, a more local solution was to alter the land that was already within the limits of the country. By transforming “unproductive wastelands” into arable, productive land, they would increase the land value and theoretically improve the lives of the people that live near it. The new land could be used to employ the poor to work the fields, or to help grow forests who’s trees could be used for ship masts. Another motivation for the remediation of wastelands was for the moral improvement of all those around it by increasing their civilization. Uncivilized areas were seen as dangerous places where rebels and unproductive people scrounged an existence out of the land. It was up to the leaders of society to improve these places and help save those around them. The motives of those seeking to improve wastelands, which were mainly wetlands and other significant, ecologically productive and diverse landscapes, may not have been entirely altruistic. After the Inclosure Acts began to be passed, common land was parcelled together, enclosed, and given to a single owner. This eventually led to the wealthy buying up huge areas of land that formerly belonged to the entire town, including the poor, and fencing it off for themselves. There was great economic incentive for buying land, as it had become extremely limited. This land-grab strategy was also used in the colonies, where settlers would civilize a place by fencing off claimed land and farming it (Greer).

Allan Greer, Commons and Enclosure in the Colonization of North America, The American Historical Review, Volume 117, Issue 2, April 2012, Pages 365–386

This passage from Chapter 8 reveals the links that formed between the Hindu and Islamic cultures around the 1400s in India. As Muslim populations moved into Southeast Asia, their culture and religion began to adapt to the region to gain converts. Ofter when different cultures or religions interact, they incorporate elements from the new, called syncretism. Adapting to the local culture also improved the ability of the ruling Muslims to manage the locals. The willingness of Islam to adapt, along with the inherent flexibility of the Hindu belief system, allowed monotheism and polytheism to mix fluidly. Although decidedly different, they share similar beliefs when it comes to nature. In an journal by J.J Burman, he identifies a trend in Islamic-Hindu syncretism: “Right from ancient days, syncretism was linked to shrines dedicated to objects of nature”. Both religions saw plant life as an extension of the divine. Hindus believe that much of the natural world was linked to deities who visited these sites, and were therefore sacred. This is similar to the Muslim associations with gardens as an oasis, linked to spirituality. Both religions also share the idea of nature as a provider for people from God/gods (Burman). Furthermore, the mixing of culture is seen in religious architecture and art in the area. Mulsim culture brought rigid and impressive architectural creations that became more open to the natural world, incorporating balconies, windows, and larger visible and accessible gardens around their mosques.

J. J. Roy Burman. (1996). Hindu-Muslim Syncretism in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 31(20), 1211-1215. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4404148

This passage from Chapter 8 reveals the links that formed between the Hindu and Islamic cultures around the 1400s in India. As Muslim populations moved into Southeast Asia, their culture and religion began to adapt to the region to gain converts. Ofter when different cultures or religions interact, they incorporate elements from the new, called syncretism. Adapting to the local culture also improved the ability of the ruling Muslims to manage the locals. The willingness of Islam to adapt, along with the inherent flexibility of the Hindu belief system, allowed monotheism and polytheism to mix fluidly. Although decidedly different, they share similar beliefs when it comes to nature. In an journal by J.J Burman, he identifies a trend in Islamic-Hindu syncretism: “Right from ancient days, syncretism was linked to shrines dedicated to objects of nature”. Both religions saw plant life as an extension of the divine. Hindus believe that much of the natural world was linked to deities who visited these sites, and were therefore sacred. This is similar to the Muslim associations with gardens as an oasis, linked to spirituality. Both religions also share the idea of nature as a provider for people from God/gods (Burman). Furthermore, the mixing of culture is seen in religious architecture and art in the area. Mulsim culture brought rigid and impressive architectural creations that became more open to the natural world, incorporating balconies, windows, and larger visible and accessible gardens around their mosques.

J. J. Roy Burman. (1996). Hindu-Muslim Syncretism in India. Economic and Political Weekly, 31(20), 1211-1215. Retrieved September 17, 2020, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/4404148

The site is the starting point for landscape architecture. Before the design phase can begin, getting to know your site will reveal information that can dictate the direction the rest of the process takes. Site visits are often the most revealing and helpful for understanding the context of the place, any limitations or boundaries, and the general atmosphere. Earthworks are inherently linked to the site by their material, they slip between the built environment and the natural environment. In our studio II project last semester, we tried to create decathlon facilities within an unconventional site. Incorporating the design elements into the site was a challenge, but using local material and working with the natural features was helpful. Texcotzingo uses the earthworks to blend built form into the garden seamlessly to give it a very natural feel. The Aztecs massively changed and transformed their landscape, building huge architectural and natural works that still remained grounded. By linking their works to the place, they also link them to the past of the area and past culture.

The concept of ziran in ancient Chinese culture is linked by both Daoism and Confucianism. The modern Daoist interpretation is the ability of an enlightened person to be in harmony with the world around them, able to see it perfectly. Normally our views are influenced by our own biases and perceptions. An example is anthropomorphism, where nonhuman things are given human characteristics. We convert and characterize to make things easier to understand. Ziran is a deeper connection and understanding of the natural world and the ability to see it without the baggage of human perception. Things cannot be compared to others; they are their own and each have a specific place in the world. Ziran has another interpretation, however, Heshanggong’s Commentary on the Daodejing. Heshanggong defines ziran as authority over the natural world, not authenticity (Tadd). This version sees a hierarchy to the natural world and cosmos as more concrete, not spontaneous. This idea is more similar to Confucianism, with rigid boundaries and clear hierarchy. This hierarchy ends not in the natural world, the cosmos, but with immortality, the next step above the natural world. Tadd, M. (2019). Ziran: Authenticity or Authority? Religions, 10(3), 207. doi:10.3390/rel10030207

The passage I chose recounts the way the Garden of Eden is described in Genesis 2, compared to the Yahwist narrative. What stands out to me, however, is the image of a lush garden compared to irrigation-supported agriculture. This metaphor shows the Garden of Eden as a perfect agricultural system, where the land easily supports its inhabitants who in turn care and watch over it. In present day, it is thought that agriculture originated in the fertile crescent, an area in the middle east stretching from Iran to Israel (Chatterjee 2016). This area also happens to be the origin of the biggest three monotheistic religions in the world which share the Eden origin story. While the Garden is often thought of as a tropical paradise or luxurious garden, the connection to the geography of the place should be considered, making an irrigated garden likely the image most conjured up when they heard the story. The inclusion of four major rivers in the story supports this idea because the Fertile Crescent depended entirely on their major rivers to sustain the crops. The purpose this serves within the text is to introduce the idea of multiple creation stories, with a perfect beginning stage, followed by a fall, a move toward redemption, and finally returning to paradise. In all these versions, we are at the third stage. We have fallen, but we are struggling our way towards a better future. This is the best-case scenario if the framework of the story is to be believed. The worst is behind along with what was once paradise/perfect, and we have to continue to improve to finish beating the problems of our time to be done.

Chatterjee, Ritu. 2016. Where did Agriculture Begin. NPR, July 15, 2016

The passage I chose recounts the way the Garden of Eden is described in Genesis 2, compared to the Yahwist narrative. What stands out to me, however, is the image of a lush garden compared to irrigation-supported agriculture. This metaphor shows the Garden of Eden as a perfect agricultural system, where the land easily supports its inhabitants who in turn care and watch over it. In present day, it is thought that agriculture originated in the fertile crescent, an area in the middle east stretching from Iran to Israel (Chatterjee 2016). This area also happens to be the origin of the biggest three monotheistic religions in the world which share the Eden origin story. While the Garden is often thought of as a tropical paradise or luxurious garden, the connection to the geography of the place should be considered, making an irrigated garden likely the image most conjured up when they heard the story. The inclusion of four major rivers in the story supports this idea because the Fertile Crescent depended entirely on their major rivers to sustain the crops. The purpose this serves within the text is to introduce the idea of multiple creation stories, with a perfect beginning stage, followed by a fall, a move toward redemption, and finally returning to paradise. In all these versions, we are at the third stage. We have fallen, but we are struggling our way towards a better future. This is the best-case scenario if the framework of the story is to be believed. The worst is behind along with what was once paradise/perfect, and we have to continue to improve to finish beating the problems of our time to be done.

Chatterjee, Ritu. 2016. Where did Agriculture Begin. NPR, July 15, 2016

Landscape architecture is a challenging and interesting part of the man vs wild archetype. We are attempting to bring the wilds of nature together with civilization and humanity. This originates in the walled garden archetype, some of the first places humans tried to mimic or recreate the wild. Part of what we want to do as landscape architects is give people a connection to the natural environment. However, stories for most of humanity were created with man being in conflict with the natural environment, trying to defeat it and control it. It brings up the question of should we create landscapes that feel controlled and tame, or embrace nature in its natural form where it is unpredictable. In this class, I will be paying increased attention to the strategies used by different cultures over time to bring the landscape to people.

The first conflict in Gilgamesh demonstrates a common archetype in stories, going back to some of the earliest ones ever told, man vs wild (Lamb). From the earliest days, people have discerned the difference from what is considered civilization and what is wild. Gilgamesh's journey is to go into nature and conquer it, bringing the evil spirit under the control of man.

The image of the wild we often conjure up is a dense jungle, but it is really just the area away from where people live. I believe it is related to the archetypes of the clearing in the forest, and the walled garden. The clearing in the forest is man changing nature for his own benefit, comfort, and safety. In Gilgamesh, killing the forest demon is supposed to protect the citizens of the city of Uruk from the wild. The walled garden, however, is having nature in the safe confines of civilization, where man rules over it. This is the ultimate end goal of Gilgamesh on this first journey, creating a safe area that his people can expand into now that the danger is gone.

Lamb, Nancy. The Art And Craft Of Storytelling: A Comprehensive Guide To Classic Writing Techniques. United States: F+W Media, 2008.