For we think friendship is the greatest good for cities, since it best prevents civil conflict in them;

and a human being naturally grows up armed and equipped for intelligence and virtue,

t is evident why a human being is more of a political animal than is any bee or any gregarious animal

Now there is a natural distinction between the female and the slave.

since everyone does every-thing for the sake of what seems good

a dead man has the same <visible> shape and figure that the living man has, but still it is not a 35 man.

We expect one and the same individual with this general education to be able to judge in practically 10 all subjects

for coming to be is the perishing of what is not, and perishing is the coming to be of what ~n~

omes to be healthy, for instance, from being sick and sick from being 35 healthy,

If, then, water cannot come to be from fire, or earth from water, then neither will anything be dark from being pale, or hard from 25 being soft;

the matter <is something> potentially, and the form <is that thing> actually.

Further, there will be many patterns of the same thing,

bad things 985a were apparently more numerous than good things,

hot and cold, or fire and earth

every case knowledge, rather than experi-ence, implies wisdom

Chance is not the same as luck, since it extends more widely

everything that is said to result from chance or luck has some definite cause.

For odd and even,

hat thing is their nature and substance.

The subject is one in number but two in form.

for it is impossible to know what a thing is if we do not know whether the thing is.

Again

A belongs to B in its own right in the following cases:

hose who assume that there is no knowledge at al

both those who lack knowl-edge and those who have it think they are in this condition, but those who 15 have the knowledge are really in it.

Then evidently they lead us towards truth.

I mean number and calculation,

Then education is the craft concerned with doing this very thing

Realizing that the same applies to the soul, when someone sees a soul disturbed and unable to see something, he won't laugh mindlessly, but he'll take into consideration whether it has come from a brighter life and is dimmed through not having yet become accustomed to the dark or whether it has come from greater ignorance into greater light and is dazzled by the increased brilliance.

In the knowable realm, the form of the good is the last thing to be seen, and it is reached only with difficulty.

Do you suppose, first of all, that these prisoners see anything of themselves and one another besides the shadows that the fire casts on the wall in front of them?

I'm imagining it.

Every soul pursues the good and does whatever it does for its sake.

What about those who define the good as pleasure?

philosophic nature

Nonetheless, we were compelled by the truth to say that no city, constitution, or individual man will ever become perfect until either b some chance event compels those few philosophers who aren't vicious (the ones who are now called useless) to take charge of a city, whether they want to or not, and compels the city to obey them, or until a god inspires the present rulers and kings or their offspring with a true erotic love for true philosophy.

And if truth led the way, we'd never say, I suppose, that a chorus of evils could ever follow in its train.

When such people have reached maturity in age and education, wouldn't you entrust the city to them and to them alone?

Only the philosophers have knowledge

You agree, then, that the women and men should associate with one another in education, in things having to do with children, and in guarding the other citizens in the way we've described

That's absolutely right.

And then, as the children are born, they'll be taken over by the officials appointed for the purpose,

Then it's clear that our next task must be to make marriage as sacred as possible.

but e in all of them women are weaker than men.

Do you know of anything practiced by human beings in which the male sex isn't superior to the female in all these ways?

bald and long-haired men are the same or opposite.

Or should we keep the women at home, as incapable of doing this, since they must bear and rear the puppies, while the males work and have the entire care of the flock?

I suspect that it's a lesser crime to kill someone involuntarily than to mislead people about fine, good, and just institutions. Since it's better to run this risk among enemies than among friends, you've well and truly encouraged mel

necessary for a city

gods

we separate the most just and the e most unjust.

They say that to do injustice is naturally good and to suffer injustice bad, but that the badness of suffering it so far exceeds the goodness of doing it that those who have done and suffered injustice and tasted both, but who lack the power to do it and avoid suffering it, decide that it is profitable to 359 come to an agreement with each other neither to do injustice nor to suffer it. As a result, they begin to make laws and covenants, and what the law commands they call lawful and just.

But this city is not, given human psychology, a real possibility.

completely good city

ho are even more pregnant in their souls than intheir bodies

“Now, some people are pregnant in body, and for this reason turn moreto women and pursue love in that way,

Human beings

what use is Love to human beings?

is in betweenmortal and immortal.”

Then how could he be a god if he has no share in good and beautifulthings?

for there is no love of ugly ones.

At the time he desires and loves something,

t, he is himself the mostbeautiful and the best; after that, if anyone else is at all like that, Love isresponsible

Love

violence never touches Love.

Love has extraordinary good looks, and betweenugliness and Love there is unceasing war

For he walks not on earth, noteven on people’s skulls, which are not really soft at all, but in the softest ofall the things that are, there he walks, there he has his home.

Love was born to hate old age and will come no-where near it.

Love seems to me very useful indeed.

Therefore I say Love is the most ancient of the gods, the most honored,and the most powerful in helping men gain virtue and blessedness,whether they are alive or have passed away.

So they punished him for that, andmade him die at the hands of women.

it’s simply because I’m a maniac, a

We are told that when each person dies, the guardian spirit who wasallotted to him in life proceeds to lead him to a certain place, whence thosewho have been gathered together there must, after being judged, proceedeto the underworld with the guide who has been appointed to lead themthither from here.

Form of life itself

This is how the soul of a philosopher would reason:

Socrates, the soul resembles the divine, and the body resem-bles the mortal.

when the soul and the body are together, nature80orders the one to be subject and to be ruled, and the other to rule and bemaster.

When did our souls acquire the knowledge of them?

Therefore, he said, if there is such a thing as coming to life again, it72would be a process of coming from the dead to the living?

such virtue is only an illusory appearance of virtue;

practice philosophy in the right way,

And that freedom and separation of the soul from the body is calleddeath?

fills uscwith wants, desires, fears, all sorts of illusions, and much nonsense, sothat, as it is said, in truth and in fact no thought of any kind ever comes tous from the body.

Do webelieve that there is such a thing as death?

the wise would resent dying,whereas the foolish would rejoice at it.

that a god is our protectorand that we are his possessions.

When she saw us, she cried out and said thesort of thing that women usually say

Surely virtue makes us good?

whether we should attack virtue as something teachable, or as a natural gift, or in whatever way it comes d to men.

Do you mean that they believe the bad things to be good, or that they know they are bad and nevertheless desire them

it is easy to say that a man's virtue consists of being able to manage public affairs and in so doing to benefit his friends and harm his enemies and to be careful that no harm comes to himself;

Can you tell me, Socrates, can virtue be taught

Are the Laws telling the truth ornot?

hen are our lives worth living with a wretched, seriouslydamaged body?

And we should value good opinions, but not bad ones?

But you can surely see, Socrates, that one should care aboutdmajority opinion too.

There are many reasons, men of Athens, why I’m not resentful at thiseoutcome—that you voted to convict me—and this outcome wasn’t unex-pected by me. I’m much more surprised at the number of votes cast on36each side: I didn’t think that the decision would be by so few votes but by agreat many

What can he mean, then, bysaying that I’m wisest? Surely he can’t be lying:

possess superhuman wisd

nd what about the gods, Euthyphro?

prosecuting those who commit an injustice, such as murder ortemple robbery, or those who’ve done some other such wrong, regardlessof whether they’re one’s father or one’s mother or anyone else whatever.

eletus, ifyou agree that Euthyphro is wise about the gods, you should also regardbme as correctly acknowledging them and drop the charge

t’s ridiculous, Socrates, for you to think it makes anydifference whether the dead man’s a stranger or a relative.

They probably think you rarely put yourself atother people’s disposal, and aren’t willing to teach your own wisdom.

we are constantly conversing with people who contradict us. He saysdogmatically that contradiction is impossible,

He concludes as follows that nothing is:

Two arts of witchcraft andmagic have been discovered—errors of the soul and deceptions ofopinion. (11

He was the first to use in dialectic the argument of Antisthenesthat attempts to prove that contradiction is impossible.

Concerning the gods I am unable to know either that they are orthat they are not or what their appearance is like.

ut all things areatoms, which he calls forms

here can be an atom the size of a kosmo

The sun is carried around in a larger circle around the moon

The things in the one kosmos have not been separated from oneanother, nor hacked apart with an axe—neither the hot from the coldnor the cold from the hot.(

All things were together.” All things except Mind (Nous), which is pure andunmixed, and which knows and controls all things.

halfthe distance, but these are infinite, and it is impossible to get throughthings that are infinite.

it is without starting or ceasing, since coming-to-be andperishing

What-is must be whole, complete, unchanging, and one. It canneither come to be nor pass away, nor undergo any qualitative change

ogos).

Ethiopians say that their gods are snub-nosed and dark,Thracians, that theirs are grey-eyed and red-haired.