be said that their use of strategies tokeep the conversation smooth was significantlyrelated to their oral communication ability in En-glish. By using these strategies, the students re-duced communication breakdowns, which madetheir speech more fluen

herefore, it is appropriate to an-alyze learners’ discourse data by focusing on notonly negotiation devices but also other strategiesfor maintaining and developing interaction.

) negotiation has an-alyzed learners’ interaction by a single method—transcription data analysis—which makes itdifficult to interpret learners’ actual intentionof specific strategy use.

general behaviors, classroom behaviors, andinteraction behaviors. The reliability of the behav-ior scales was estimated by Cronbach’s alpha (.77,.75, and .72 for each respective part)

An indirect general statement does not au-tomatically present a direct use of strategies ina real classroom setting.

Awareness-raising activities aimed at drawing students’ attention to strategies, along with strategy instruction to broaden their strategy reper-toires and increase their confidence and ability in strategy use, should become the order of the day in language classrooms.

What, why and how they learn is more likely to depend on what they believe to be right

gauge knowledge about strategies and tap into perceived use of strategies. Students rated the usefulness

knowledge about use-focused

igure 1

Communication strategies take two forms in this study. One concerns what students do when they miss or fail to understand what has been said. The other involves how to communicate their meaning when they lack specific words.

erson knowledge encompasses every-thing that language learners have come to believe about themselves and others as learners. Task knowledge refers to what learners know about the purpose, demands and nature of learning tasks. Strategy knowledge is learners’ percep-tions or beliefs about strategies that are effective in facilitating learning and achieving defined learning goals in specific situations.

ata is based on only four participants, we should be cautious in generalisingconclusions from these results. Hence, further qualitative research is neededwith a larger number of participants to confirm whether perceived strategy use,as measured by questionnaires, can be validated by actual strategy use.

know. Due to the two-way, split infor-mation, closed nature of the task learners were forced to refer to these lexicalitems and so resorted to compensation strategies that they wouldn’t normallyuse (gesture, literal translation) to get their meaning across.

Hence, in oral communica-tion, it may be that familiarity with the situation (interlocutor, surroundings) ismore crucial in reducing anxiety than the particular features of a task

Where possible, mean SQ responses from the four case studies

Description caused significantly more anxiety than the Information Gap

This task was con-sidered medium difficulty of the three

The qualita-tive analysis from this stage of the study was undertaken to triangulate datacollected with the questionnaire

They were asked to complete task-based strategy checklists at the end of eachtask

Dörnyei and Scott 1997

Because, as will be shown in Table 2below, there was considerable between-group and between-taskvariation in the learners’ language output, for the correlation-based analyses we computed standard scores within each class forboth the independent and dependent variables and used theserather than the raw scores in the computations.

the Cronbach Alpha internalconsistency reliability coefficient.

All the data from the questionnaires were computer coded, andthe number of variables to be analysed was reduced by computingmulti-item variables (scales) by summing the thematicallycorresponding items.

This second measure was includedbecause it was assumed that the successful completion of aproblem-solving, negotiation-based task such as the one we hadused would require a considerable amount of turn-taking to takeplace. In contrast, a hasty and unmotivated solution in which noreal arguments or attempts at persuading the interlocutor areinvolved can be achieved by using very few turns.

E.g. ‘I have found the language tasks used in the project useful’ (2, .51

Linguistic self-confidence Factor associated with a favourable self-conception of language aptitude, satisfaction with progress and a belief in one’s ability to succeed in L2 learning; e.g. ‘I am sure I’ll be able to learn English’ (5, .70)

Then the participating students were asked to fill in two self-reportquestionnaires. The first focused on attitudinal/motivational issues,based on Clément, Dörnyei and Noels’s (1994) instrumentspecifically developed for Hungarian learners.

gimnázium

relationship between motivation and achievement is notstraightforward

ognitive and educational

Willis (1996) argues that task-basedlearning ‘combines the best insights from communicative languageteaching with an organized focus on language form’ (p. 1) andSkehan (1998b) asserts that ‘instruction in which learners are giventasks to complete in the classroom makes the assumption thattransacting tasks in this way will engage naturalistic acquisitionalmechanisms, cause the underlying interlanguage system to bestretched, and drive development forward’

concrete and ‘fine-grained’ level of analysis and one that isconducive both to implementing and combining various differentresearch paradigms

earning tasks as

current study were at the lower intermediateproficiency level.

NSs provided sig-nificantly more feedback than NNS

n other words, although adult interlocutors seemed to providedifferent amounts and types of feedback, the type of interlocutorseemed to have no effect on the immediate output learnersproduced in response to that feedback

, the vast majority of feedback did offer oppor-tunities for learners to produce modified output, regardless ofdyad type. In adult dyads, the feedback provided by NNSs wassignificantly more likely to offer such opportunities than wasfeedback provided by NSs

Still, various researchers have argued that learners'ability to modify their output in response to feedback suggeststhat they have made some use of that feedback.

earners to modify their output, which, in turn,may promote fluency, automatization of retrieval processes, andsyntactic,ratherthanpurelysemantic,L2

es: help-seeking, modified inter- action, modified output, time-gaining, maintenance, and self-solving strateg

-unit analysis was useful for assess- ing the Japanese EFL students' performance be- cause their discourse consisted of many 1-word utterances and incomplete sentences.

ows: (a) The quan- tity of speech production was measured by the number of words per c-unit (an utterance, such as a word, phrase, or sentence, that gives refer- ential or pragmatic meaning to interaction [see Brock, 1986]) in each participant's transcript; and (b) the degree to which the parti

p. Therefore, we can say that the students in the control group were ex- pected to learn English by using the target lan- guage as much as possible in authentic interaction but that they had much less time for refle

n the presentation stage, according to an in- structor's guideline, the students recognized the goals and procedures of the new task and dis- cussed through brainstorming sessions basic di- alogues that they were asked to create and the possible OCSs for doing so. D

s. A significant improvement was found among the participants in the strategy train- ing group in the quality and quantity of strategy use and in their overall speech perfo

He examined the teachability of communication strategies by focusing on whether the training of a specific strategy enhanced the quantity and qual- ity of learners' strategy use. His study was con- ducted in high school EFL classes in Hungary over a period of 6 weeks. He used three types of communication strategy: topic avoidance and replacement, circumlocution, and using fillers and hesitation in order to remain in the con

Therefore, in the training program in this study, the focus was on metacognitive strategies that could enhance the learners' creative use of lan- guage to get meaning across in contexts of au- thentic interactions despite their target language deficienc

. Thus we may say that the de- gree to which target language data are integrated into a learner's schematic system depends on the learner's awareness of the learning proce

gies. Bachman (1990) separated strategic competence clearly from language com- petence (knowledge of and about a language) by regarding strategic competence as a capacity that projects language competence into real commu- nication con

MLM as seen in the examples above,

In MLM designs, we can introduce level 1 predictors (e.g. student characteristics such as motivation) to explain why some students have higher grades than others, and we can introduce level 2 predictors (e.g. teacher effectiveness, classroom technology) to explain why some classes have higher average grades than others.

Fortunately, there are techniques under the umbrella of mixture modelling that allow one to model blends of typologies and continuous dimensions

ttitude Motivation Test Battery

For example, the finding of a substantial positive correlation between vocabulary size and shoe size in children would probably disappear once we controlled for age.

analysis of variance (ANOVA) and multiple correlation/regression

is a mere single self-report question

simulation exercise,

Type I error, or they could specify two unequal means, thus setting up a situation to study power and Type II error.

Dörnyei’s (2014) innovative retrodictive qualitative modelling approach. This approach takes the complex system’s observable end state as the starting-point for analysis, and works backwards or retrodictively from this to understand the dynamics of how and why various system com-ponents have ended up in this end state

t interest in complex dynamic systems theory (CDST) among L2 motivation researchers, the amount of empirical work adopting CDST perspectives remains relatively small

Dörnyei, Z. (2014) Researching complex dynamic systems: ‘Retrodictive qualitative modelling’ in the language classroom. Language Teaching 47 (1), 80–91.

Dörnyei, Z., MacIntyre, P.D. and Henry, A. (eds) (2015a) Motivational Dynamics in Language Learning. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.

complex dynamic systems theory (e.g. Dörnyei, 2014; Dörnyei et al., 2015a

In response, Lambert had apparently commented to him that actually ‘the best way to learn about someone’s integrative motivation was prob-ably to sit quietly and chat with him over a bottle of wine for an evening

Using a video-recording and detailed transcript of learner-learner interactions, we may then examine how motivation evolves individually and collectively during task engagement by analysing how processes of motivation are expressed (verbally and non-verbally) and constructed as learners work together, and how such processes of motivation shape (and are shaped by) their efforts to co-regulat

Relatively little attention has been directed towards examining how the motivation to control strategic thinking develops, and how teachers can scaffold and support this process in their interactions with learners

to explore their potential associations with learners’ attentional focus and resources. For example, one might speculate that learners who are strongly motivated by future self-images as fluent L2 speakers may be oriented to notice the range of discourse markers used by fluent communicators to manage the flow of speech

e general scarcity of published work reporting on classroom-based practitioner-led investigations in this area

M.A.-level studies of L2 motivation can often be rather dull, at least from the dissertation supervisor’s perspective

noticing’ and ‘awareness’ are used interchangeably

At this point, it is an entirely open question whether and in what ways theproficiency/attention interface in L2 pragmatics relates to the motivation/attention interface. There is a possibility that motivation and proficiencymay jointly operate on attention and awareness in pragmatic input; thatis, highly motivated learners with higher proficiency may be superiorin their pragmatic awareness to those with lower motivation and lowerproficiency

detection without awareness (i.e.preconscious registration)

by excluding the possibility of subconsciousnoticing

Had respondents been choosing courses, deliberating about careers or places to travel, had they been developing friendships or thinking about international adventures, ideal selves and thoughts consistent with the integrative motive seem likely to arise. Future research might use the idiodynamic method to examine, in greater detail, the ways in which activating either of these motives affects task performanc

‘I knew what I was talking about, I wanted Ice cream’

he analytic strategy for RQ1 differs from prior research by reporting quantitative data for individuals and not using group comparisons or correlations for the group of participants.

The software features an “auto-zero” function that returns the level of the respondent’s rating toward zero at the rate of one point per second if there is no response from the user. This feature requires active responses from the user, unless the user’s motivation is equal to zero.

to integrative motivation (Gardner, 2010), task motivation (Julkunen, 2001), the ideal self, the ought-to self, L2 learning experience (Dörnyei, 2009a), and/or motivation from the unique experimental situation

Conversely,students who drop-out from German at A2 level may not be aware of the positiveemployment prospects in modern foreign language, as Watts and Pickering (2005: 23)point out.

By studying German I hope to gain more competence in speakingGerman’; mean ¼1.26

gain language proficiency (mean ¼1.36)

This finding was surprising, as it was in contrast to results of theEuropean Language Proficiency Survey of university students (Coleman 1996),where liking for the L2 came only second as a motivation for studying a foreignlanguage, while instrumental reasons such as career prospects came first

Whether the principal components of the L2 self system, the ideal self and theought-to self, play a role in students’ decisions to study German.(2) Whether intrinsic motivation plays a role in students’ decisions.(3) Whether and to what extent the dimensions of integrativeness andinstrumentality play a role.(4) The relationship between the ideal self, intrinsic motivation and integrative-ness and instrumentality.

member of an imagined L2 community whose mentalconstruction is partly based on our real-life experiences of members of thecommunity/communities speaking the particular L2 in question and partly on ourimagination’ (Do ̈ rnyei 2005, 102).

This is an avenue worth exploring, as muchinsight can be gained from students who actually manage to sustain their motivationall the way through school to university level

supportive environment where feedback enhances their sense ofcompetence in the learning task are likely to be those studentswho learn because it is pleasurable or because it appeals to theirself-concept.

This pattern might suggest that IM, although related toEM, lies on a continuum separate from EM,6 a possibility thatwarrants more research.

discussed by Clément andKruidenier (1983) indicated that, in all cases, the motivationalorientations were negatively correlated with Amotivation (seeTable 3).

andbook of Individual Differences in Cognition Braver et al. (2010, p. 176) affirm the generally gloomy picture in this area by concluding, “The study of such [motivational] questions using cognitive neuroscience techniques is still in its infancy, but we view this as one of the most promising areas of research to open up in recent years.”

Demotivation:

classroom L2 learning motivation is not a static construct as often measured in a quantitative manner, but a compound and relative phenomenon situated in various resources and tools in a dynamic classroom context”

ognitive-situated period

pre-paradigmatic state

specifically forlexis (Laufer & Girsai, 2008; White & Horst, 2012)and grammar (Horst, White, & Bell, 2010; Kupfer-berg, 1999; Spada, Lightbown, & White, 2005)

roved learners’ speed (online self-paced readingtest) and accuracy (offline sentence judgementtest in reading and listening) o

tructional effectiveness by studying the outcomesof instruction among learners with differentamounts/types of language exposure and/or L2proficiency. For example, Isabelli (2007) foundthat instruction about the Spanish subjunctivewas more effective for learners who had recentlyreturned from study abroad than for learnerswho had not studied abroad, indicating potentialinteractions between language exposure and/orproficiency and instructional effectiveness

This is one likely explanation for why IMP’s ha-bitual function appears to be acquired later thanits ongoing function among English L1 speak-ers: The low validity of English cues for habitu-ality reduces learners’ sensitivity/atte

kill AcquisitionTheory (DeKeyser, 2017)

Second, prior languageknowledge and experience can influence atten-tion to cues

). Less research has manipu-lated the nature of EI given in the instruction toaddress specific crosslinguistic learnability chal-lenges. One exception is McManus and Marsden(2017, 2018, 2019), who manipulated the type ofEI (and comprehension) practice across condi-tions. The current study addresses this gap by in-troducing L1 EI and L1 practice into L2 instruc-tion

‘Does metalinguis-tic activity lead students to write better texts?’

terestingly, while this student (a low achiever) seemed able intuitively to grasp thedeictic nature of first-person pronouns, he maintained the narrow scholarly definition he hadpreviously given, which seemed to hinder the possibility of incorporating this new, more finelygrained feature of pronouns.

The Instructional Sequences focus on grammar issues, either fromwithin the system (e.g., the concept of transitivity, cf. Camps and Zayas 2006) or from writing(e.g., the concept of connectives in argumentation, cf. Camps 2003).

Because the participants in the present ex-periment were beginning learners, it was expected that feedback would supportlearning during testing for all instructional groups;

would suggest an advantage for more meaningfulinstruction but it is not clear how this would affect the present results beyondincreasing performance across all similarity conditions, because participants inall groups were likely using both meaning and form information

Results from ANCOVAs on posttest scores including each of theseas a covariate did not show any significant effect

longitudinal study

We hypothesized that, although all three traininggroups would acquire the rules to some extent, the Rule & Salience Groupwould demonstrate superior ability to verbalize them due to their exposure toexplicit rules during training.

Ellis and colleagues (Ellis, 2006; Ellis et al., 2012) furthersuggest that what is noticed or attended to in the L2 input is in turn shaped by thelearner’s L1 background.

Results showed thatexplicit training was associated with higher accuracy in the production of targetforms, particularly in the case of novel exemplars.

In this exercise, the potential of journalistic texts is explored.

e approached from either formal or communicative viewpoints? To whatextent can such viewpoints be complementary?

It maintains that such research trends, which are of asociocultural orientation, believe that reflexivity fuels language learning and development

r teachingin schools. Research Papers

While it may not lead to studentsautomatically writing better texts, metalinguistic activity does help them to engage in sustaineddiscussion about text choices in the context of text production, something considered of theutmost importance in educating good writers.

As Taylor concludes, ‘overgeneralization and transfer learning...appear tobe two distinctive linguistic manifestations ofone psychological process. Thatprocess is oneinvolving prior learning to facilitate new learning.

A sad irony for an L2 speaker under suchcircumstances of transfer is that more input simply compounds their error;they dig themselves ever deeper into the hole created and subsequentlyentrenched by their L1

elective attention

once a cue has been blocked, further learning about that cue is attenuated(Kruschke and Blair 2000)

In contrast, when cues were compounded with otherswhich were not particularly informative (cue B), the target cue (D) receiveda normal association with the outcome

his erosion has a particularlydramatic effect in sounds such as suffixes or prefixes that perform importantgrammatical functions. In this way, while Latin had different forms for all sixcombinations of person and number in the present tense, French has justthree different forms for the present tense of ‘-er’ verbs (four for ‘-ir’, ‘-re’,and ‘-oir’ type verbs), and modern English has just two. Thus dopsycholinguistic and associative learning processes in usage affect bothlanguage learning and language change

he used agreement and animacy cues wheneverpossible, largely ignoring word order when it competed with agreementand animacy. Th

These are no one-to-one form to meaning mappings.

hus a contingency analysis of these cue-interpretation associations suggests that they will not be readily learnable

measures of meaning focused language use

While this information could be provided to students directly by the teacher, it might bemore effective for the teacher to work with the students to help them come up with the rulesgoverning English question formation themselves and discover how these differ from theirL1 rules. Information discovered by the students with the teacher’s help when it is neededmay be easier to remember than information that is simply presented to them

It might have been more revealing to have conducted the interviewsin two parts: first to ask students about the meaning of the decontextualised words beforeadministering the grammaticality judgement and scrambled questions task.

Altogether, the 150 studentparticipants judged 570 of 1500 question items (each student judged 10 questions) to beincorrect. However, they provided a metalinguistic explanation for less than 10% (n=56)of them. Of these, only 15 had anything to do with question formation.

However, research has shown that task type isnot the only constraint on the utility of metalinguistic knowledge (Hu, 2002).

The third research question focused on the relationship between metalinguistic aware-ness and L2 performance on the tasks. The results suggest that the two variables tendedto operate in tandem. That is, students who were aware of the difference between theirL1 and L2 interrogative systems were better able to correctly judge and construct yes–noand Wh– English questions than students who did not possess such knowledg

The word order in more than two thirds of the questions thestudents created reflected two main patterns: declarative word order or ‘fronting’ (placinga Wh– word or auxiliary [usually ‘do’or ‘does’] at the beginning of a declarative sentence).

That is, re-quiring students to write down their explanations could have limited their willingness ortheir ability to communicate their thoughts.

Those holding the weak interface position argue that explicit metalinguistic knowl-edge can facilitate the acquisition of implicit knowledge by focusing learners’ attention onlinguistic features in the input (Ellis, 1994).

Given that these studentstend to have comparable representations of the L2 system, interactions between them donot often lead to the need for what Long (1996) and others have referred to as ‘negotiationfor meaning’ in which learners discover errors or gaps in their interlanguage as they seekto make their meaning clear.