a misalignment between the faculty’s own values and perceived institu-tional values

Before reviewing these models and characterisations, it may be helpful first to consider existing attempts at simplifying and categorising current systems along key dimensions (see Table 1).

Initially proposing three layers, Curry later includes “social interaction” as a fourth layer.

Learning style may be considered as stable over time (structural)—a trait—or as changing with each experience or situation (process)—a state.

it is perhaps timely to present an account of the central themes and issues surrounding learning style and to consider the instruments available for the measurement of style. This paper aims to provide such an account, attempting to clarify common areas of ambiguity and in particular issues surrounding measurement and appropriate instruments.

At their core, instructional design models seek to help designers overcome gaps in what is learned due to either instruction, motivation, or resources

So long as a designer can align components of an instructional problem with the priorities of a particular model, they will likely be met with success through the systematic process.

The Plan, Implement, Evaluate (PIE) model from Newby, Stepich, Lehman, and Russell (1996) encourages an emphasis on considering how technology assists with instructional design, focusing on the what, when, why, and how.

Notice the use of the phrase process rather than model. For instructional design purposes, a process is defined as a series of steps necessary to reach an end result. Similarly, a model is defined as a specific instance of a process that can be imitated or emulated. In other words, a model seeks to personalize the generic into distinct functions for a specific context.

Analyze – identify the probable causes for a performance gap, Design –verify the desired performances and appropriate testing methods, Develop – generate and validate the learning resources, Implement – prepare the learning environment and engage the students, Evaluate – assess the quality of the instructional products and processes, both before and after implementation (p. 3).

For this reason, we have consciously chosen not to advocate one theory over the others, but to stress instead the usefulness of being well versed in each. This is not to suggest that one should work without a theory, but rather that one must be able to intelligently choose, on the basis of information gathered about the learners’ present level of competence and the type of learning task, the appropriate methods for achieving optimal instructional outcomes in that situation.

The following are several specific assumptions or principles from the constructivist position that have direct relevance for the instructional designer (possible ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle): An emphasis on the identification of the context in which the skills will be learned and subsequently applied [anchoring learning in meaningful contexts]. An emphasis on learner control and the capability of the learner to manipulate information [actively using what is learned]. The need for information to be presented in a variety of different ways [revisiting content at different times, in rearranged contexts, for different purposes, and from different conceptual perspectives]. Supporting the use of problem-solving skills that allow learners to go “beyond the information given.” [developing pattern-recognition skills, presenting alternative ways of representing problems]. Assessment focused on transfer of knowledge and skills [presenting new problems and situations that differ from the conditions of the initial instruction].

Therefore, the goal of instruction is to accurately portray tasks, not to define the structure of learning required to achieve a task.

cognitive emphases imply that major tasks of the teacher/designer

Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the following (possible current ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle): Emphasis on the active involvement of the learner in the learning process [learner control, metacognitive training (e.g., self-planning, monitoring, and revising techniques)] Use of hierarchical analyses to identify and illustrate prerequisite relationships [cognitive task analysis procedures] Emphasis on structuring, organizing, and sequencing information to facilitate optimal processing [use of cognitive strategies such as outlining, summaries, synthesizers, advance organizers, etc.] Creation of learning environments that allow and encourage students to make connections with previously learned material [recall of prerequisite skills; use of relevant examples, analogies]

Many of the instructional strategies advocated and utilized by cognitivists are also emphasized by behaviorists, yet usually for different reasons.

Up to this point, little difference can be detected between these two theories. However, the “active” nature of the learner is perceived quite differently. The cognitive approach focuses on the mental activities of the learner that lead up to a response and acknowledges the processes of mental planning, goal-setting, and organizational strategies (Shuell, 1986). Cognitive theories contend that environmental “cues” and instructional components alone cannot account for all the learning that results from an instructional situation. Additional key elements include the way that learners attend to, code, transform, rehearse, store and retrieve information.

The goal of instruction for the behaviorist is to elicit the desired response from the learner who is presented with a target stimulus. To accomplish this, the learner must know how to execute the proper response, as well as the conditions under which that response should be made. Therefore, instruction is structured around the presentation of the target stimulus and the provision of opportunities for the learner to practice making the proper response. To facilitate the linking of stimulus-response pairs, instruction frequently uses cues (to initially prompt the delivery of the response) and reinforcement (to strengthen correct responding in the presence of the target stimulus).

Specific assumptions or principles that have direct relevance to instructional design include the following (possible current ID applications are listed in italics and brackets following the listed principle): An emphasis on producing observable and measurable outcomes in students [behavioral objectives, task analysis, criterion-referenced assessment] Pre-assessment of students to determine where instruction should begin [learner analysis] Emphasis on mastering early steps before progressing to more complex levels of performance [sequencing of instructional presentation, mastery learning] Use of reinforcement to impact performance [tangible rewards, informative feedback] Use of cues, shaping and practice to ensure a strong stimulus-response association [simple to complex sequencing of practice, use of prompts]

The empiricist, or associationist, mindset provided the framework for many learning theories during the first half of this century, and it was against this background that behaviorism became the leading psychological viewpoint

Rationalism is the view that knowledge derives from reason without the aid of the senses

Empiricism is the view that experience is the primary source of knowledge (Schunk, 1991). That is, organisms are born with basically no knowledge and anything learned is gained through interactions and associations with the environment.

Learning is an enduring change in behavior, or in the capacity to behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other forms of experience” (p. 2).

They include record keeping for student learning, planning for student learning, instruction for student learning, and assessment for/of student learning.

Roles for Students

The teacher’s role has changed dramatically in the new paradigm of instruction from the “sage on the stage” to the “guide on the side.”

Selection of instructional strategies in the instructional space is primarily based on the type of learning (the ends of instruction) involved (see Unit 3 in Reigeluth & Carr-Chellman, 2009). For memorization, drill and practice is most effective (Salisbury, 1990), including chunking, repetition, prompting, and mnemonics. For application (skills), tutorials with generality, examples, practice, and immediate feedback are most effective (Merrill, 1983; Romiszowski, 2009). For conceptual understanding, connecting new concepts to existing concepts in a student’s cognitive structures requires the use of such methods as analogies, context (advance organizers), comparison and contrast, analysis of parts and kinds, and various other techniques based on the dimensions of understanding required (Reigeluth, 1983). For theoretical understanding, causal relationships are best learned through exploring causes (explanation), effects (prediction), and solutions (problem solving); and natural processes are best learned through description of the sequence of events in the natural process (Reigeluth & Schwartz, 1989).

four problems with PBI—difficulty ensuring mastery, transfer, automaticity, and efficiency

The industrial-age paradigm of education and training was based on extrinsic motivation, with grades, study halls, detentions, and in the worst cases repeating a grade or flunking out. In contrast, for a variety of reasons, intrinsic motivation is emphasized in the information-age paradigm.

We must recognize that the main problem with our education and training systems is not the teachers or the students, it is the system—a system that is designed more for sorting than for learning (see Reigeluth, 1987, 1994, for examples).

This article describes instructional theory that supports post-industrial education and training systems—ones that are customized and learner-centered, in which student progress is based on learning rather than time. The author discusses the importance of problem-based instruction (PBI), identifies some problems with PBI, overviews an instructional theory that addresses those problems, and describes the roles that should be played by the teacher, the learner, and technology in the new paradigm.

Indeed, it was the realization that the design process was the valuable part of programmed instruction that led to the emergence of systematic instructional design as a powerful tool (Markle, 1967).

One of the consequences of this practice was to promote the flowering of a systematic procedure for designing, testing, and revising programmed materials, a precursor to later instructional design models

The original programs devised by B.F. Skinner and his followers led users through a pre-specified sequence of small steps. Shortly after Skinner’s invention, Norman Crowder introduced a variation that was not founded on any particular theory of learning, but only on practicality. It featured a more flexible programmed lesson structure that allowed learners to skip ahead through material that was easy for them or to branch off to remedial frames when they had difficulty.

house stood upon the edge of a hill

Deut. 32.39. See now that I, even I am he, and there is no god with me, I kill and I make alive, I wound and I heal, neither is there any can deliver out of my hand.

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