but it still considered the war justified asone of German national defence

The collapse of military confi-dence, the disintegration of tsarist legitimacy, deep economic dislocation, andthe one-sided polarization of society against the state were not paralleled inother countries in 1917, whereas they had been rehearsed in the earlier Russianrevolution of 1905

the product of cap-italism

Both moderate Dutchand Scandinavians and more radical Swiss andItalians organized international meetings

anarchists and revolutionarysyndicalists accepted that workers did have a fatherland

not from economic rivalries but from a nationalist conflict in the Balkans

German Social Democratic Party

saw war as a possible path to revolution

Two books published in 2002 and 2004 by the Turkish Historical Society maintainedthere was no intention to exterminate the Armenians;

US delegation, which thought the concept lacked precisionand was morally arbitrary.

German U-boat warfare against Allied merchant ships

was a war crime

view today is thatthe blockade was illega

“important partof military expediency.

everal cases of seniorofficers issuing such orders

British and French prisoners in Germany and German prisoners in Britain and Francewere most likely to survive their captivit

Russian ethno-nationalism and to theemergence of violent anti-semitism in Eastern Europe

taken in groups of 50to 100, forced to dig their own graves

s many as 13,600, including 6,500 women and children, weredeported to Russia.

above all against Jews

Cossack atrocities

my regiment andI myself fired at all civilians we found in the houses from which we suspected there hadbeen shots fired; in that way we killed women and even children

; many were women and children; civilians were usedas human shields before enemy fire; there were instances of torture and widespreadarson;

5,521 civilians in Belgiu

German chancellor Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg freelyadmitted that the invasion of neutral Belgium broke international law.

outraged public opinionand resulted in an improvement in German colonial policies

colonial conques

Geneva conferences of 1864 and 1906. The protection of thecivilian preoccupied the Hague conferences and resulting conventions of 1899 and1907, though it should be noted that under strict conditions these did allow civilian

Butfrom 1917, civilian agencies came to the fore

Right-wing politics in pre-war Europe were as diverse and fractured as left-wingpolitics

Right-wing politics in pre-war Europe were as diverse and fractured as left-wingpolitics

To varying degrees, strike action wasbanned or discouraged, wages were regulated, workers were directed to par-ticular industrial sectors, and the traditional practices which had given workerssome control over the labour market and

Union leaders were often socialists, and socialist parties were correspondinglyassociated with union interests

Hungarian parliament.

‘minorities’ throughout the Aus-trian empire resented a call to arms on behalf of a distant dynasty.

did not in any case need their approval to carryon government during wartime.

by a handful of cabinet minis-ters without reference to the military authorities,

(still a socialist), Aristide Briand (like Viviani, a formersocialist),

men rushed to volunteer for a patriotic war

that social and political change was a fact of life;that it was the duty of governments to put right at least some social wrongs

largely ignored the ‘Delegations

Russia in the same period was hustled somewhat unsuc-cessfully towards industrialization by its rulers.

Governments everywhere were forced to confront thechallenge of mass politics and the working class

Italy

rational’ male heads of households and placing ‘irrational’ women,

as adultery was thought tolead to the injuring or killing of one’s husband

would determine if shewas suffering from venereal disease

were ready to engage in sexual encounters withany man in uniform.

women committing adultery while their husbands

rather than addressing such economicfactors for increased or decreased prostitution throughout the war, thegovernment continued to support regulated houses of prostitution

about whatthey could do to avoid venereal disease.

suppress italtogether.

The sexualbehaviour of women came under increased surveillance as fears of thespread of venereal diseases and their undermining of military fitness rose.

were put in camps for the duration ofthe war.

married to French or British men now suspect?

thereby coming into contact with civilian women engaged insimilar occupations

ventually, thegovernment approved legislation that permitted the legitimising of thechildren of mobilised soldiers even after their death in battle

protected status through their paternity and theirproblematic nature through their maternity.

It was about how to control women’s sexuality in order to preservethe ‘home life’ that every British soldier or sailor was defending.

young girls so swept up in patrioticfervour as to offer themselves to any man in uniform

rose to 8.3per cent of all births in 1917, at its height, nearly doubling the 1914 rate of4.2 per cent, but it was back down to 6.3 per cent the following year

they were also anxious abouta presumed increase in illegitimate birth

become more sexually promiscuous

strongly sexual morality andmorale were linked during the war

were created, so as tosafeguard both the soldiers and the women.

TheFrench government seemed more concerned with drunkenness leading tosexual encounters that might infect military men with venereal disease

The efforts to combat the misuse of alcohol came from women as well.

It soon became clear that these womenincluded more members of the middle class and respectable working classthan previously.

wartime changes such as the loosening of family ties that helped ensuremorality, and the resulting spread of vice.

he denounced their moral and sexualbehaviou

if so,whether peacetime would end them.

‘my body serves mycountry’

alluring women, was also used to ‘sell’ the war. French postcards depictedwomen as the rewards for jobs well done

dramatic changes in women’s appearance, such as wearing shorter skirtsand shorter hair, and social behaviour, such as drinking alcohol andsmoking cigarettes publicly.

middle-class and upper-class women in more and more public spaces.

perfect, traditional morality as they sent their men off tofight.

how to guarantee that womenwould not fall to pieces in the absence of their men because of the war’smass mobilisation.

Wilson to dictate the terms of peace. The United States’ unwillingness to join the League of Nations ultimately doomed Wilson’s vision of using a system of collective security to safeguard world peace.

relevance of Wilsonian ideals in guiding U.S. foreign policy

influenza virus

exploring how violence against women became accepted as a legitimate method of controlling unruly women who protested loudly and directly

Wilson’s war for democracy failed to topple Jim Crow at home.

the modern surveillance state took shape during World War I.

conscription to raise the bulk of its military force.

In particular, Little chides historians for overlooking the $6 billion American humanitarian relief effort to alleviate civilian suffering in Europe, the Soviet Union, and the Near East from 1914 to 1924.

self-determination” and “consent of the governed”

war was America’s to fight and ultimately embraced war in the name of both humanitarianism and self-defense

Yet many historians still remain largely uncertain about the war’s importance for the United States.