This quote from this passage sparked my interest because of the use of the word "carelessness". Similar to Wilson and his critique of the Anthropocene enthusiasts mindset, carelessness fits as an appropriate meaning, to describe the ongoing destruction of and ignorance thrown at the natural world. In Wilson's view, the topic stems around the park system, and how the preservation and conservation of the land is often times put to the background, behind human desire and intention. And here McAfee is showing how in the same sense, the economic survival of the human-centered world, strives from the depleted and exploited landscape.

"Burle Marx clearly was interested in the landscape as a creative act rather than static artifact – a garden for him was precisely the act of its making, a deep creative experience, and a process of discovery. Many of his best projects are, in fact, the ones in which Burle Marx was able to intervene and make revisions all along:the interruptions during construction or the delayed implementation would be in fact moments for reflection, development, and incorporation of new ideas. In all this lie an apparent paradox: while his plan-gouaches and other artistic representation tended to fix in history his landscapes in two dimensions, the built projects were always changing, and were allowed to change by him, in time, and in three-dimension. They were always in a state of changing physiognomy, soto speak, defying the possibility of authentication of an original form,in a particular moment. This aspect challenges traditional notions of preservation and conservation, because it is nearly impossible and often unproductive to date and associate Burle Marx’s work with a particular time in history, and also with a particular drawing.."

Vaccarino, Rossana. (2002). Interpreting and preserving the work of Roberto Burle Marx: in search for new approaches. Paisagem e Ambiente.

This particular passage reveals the author, Burle-Marx, and his frustrations with the decline in human and plant relationships. This frustration is also depicted in the overall collective disengagement that human culture possesses from the natural world. He relates this decline to the increase in human population growth and the mindlessness that occurs in the minds of some. Even thirty years later, I would concur that the same mindlessness resides in the minds of humans in relation to the natural world today.

Marx here is describing the positive and intimate relationship that occurs in the binomial-human plant. I feel his description that there will always remain a question of true and deep understanding between one another, should inform and support to the notion for stronger knowledge and connections. This unfortunately does not seem to be the case, as Marx is noting that there are complete synthetic gardens that are constructed and admired in western society, that fully miss the dynamic system that a garden composes itself of. Vaccarino makes note of this in her discussion of Burle-Marx's very own design, making reference to his view of the garden as a deep creative experience, and a process of discovery. Throughout the chapter, I feel he is making clear that with the use of synthetic planting and ignoring the complex nature of plants, the culture of nature conservation will continue to decline and shift towards reality exchanged for aesthetic and appearance.

"Increasingly over the past 65 million years, we have lived on a planet dominated by human beings. He labels this the “Anthropocene Epoch.” According to Wilson the fundamental problem is the world-view of the “Anthropocene enthusiasts,” who defend the right of the human species to rule the world in our own self-interest and without regard for other species. Certainly this ideology is prevalent if not entirely hegemonic today.

However, the book seems to root the causes of this view in the ideas of individuals and societies. Wilson holds a particular animus for those who believe that the natural world is already gone, unrecoverable, and that the best way to protect other species is to develop the human world with an eye toward how the survival of other species can be useful or even essential to us. He argues that the survival and recovery of other species can only be based upon a radical shift in philosophy that places the survival of all species as the highest principle."

Rotin, Mike.(2018) Half-Earth or Half Solution? E.O. Wilson’s Solution to Species Loss, The Solutions Journal, Volume 9, Issue 1

Here, Wilson is discussing the ideology of the new conservation movement that occurs in western society, from the perspective of an Anthropocene enthusiasts, who views conservation as rooted in human intention and use. This quote was interesting to note, as it put a different lense on how we view our national parks (parks centered around nature) and how often times these areas are managed in a way that is beneficial for the people who will enjoy them. The focus has shifted from making a positive biological and ecological effect on the withstanding wilderness, but rather how we can conserve that land to better assist us. This was an interesting point of view that I had not pondered on when looking at the US conservation movement and the establishment of such managed parks. I appreciate Wilson's critique of this human-centered agenda, and his suggestion to revisit the past traditional methods of conservation in which we are humble visitors of the natural environment, not imposers.

Before reading this chapter, I had not heard the term Anthropocene enthusiasts and Wilson gives a clear detailing of their beliefs and claims in relation to conservation. I can best describe this type of new conservation ideology, in that it is the belief that humanity has changed the wilderness beyond all repair, and in that, we should use it to our own value. This person understands the earth's destiny as being humanized and "pristine wilderness" no longer existing. This person does believe in the conservation of biodiversity but that it does not always need to be left intact and a complete system.

"In this regard, Cooper criticizes her fellow Americans: "the civilization of the present" is "less dignified, and imposing in aspect. It would be comparatively easy work to remove from the Earth all traces of many of the peculiar merits of modern civilization. " She gives several examples, all attesting to the elusive quality of the achievements of the age: light suspension, bridges, railways, steam-powered ships, the telegraph, and the achievement of Daguerre in creating the daguerreotype. In contrast the earlier ages and Old World places, the present America era seems to delight in structures and achievements that are ephemeral: "look, in fact, at any of the peculiar and most remarkable of the works of the age, and see how speedily all traces of them could be removed." If a barbaric group of people were to try to destroy all traces of her civilization, Cooper argues, they could easily, leaving no "monuments of our period". Significantly, given the concern that she expresses in Rural Hours for nonnative, invasive plant species in her region, she speculates here that they only remaining presence of the New World landscape of Euro-American culture would be nonindigenous plants: "Perchance, as regards America, the chief proofs that eastern civilization had once passed over this country would be found in the mingled vegetation, the trees, the plants, the very weeds of the old world"..

Johnson, R. (2009). Passions for Nature: Nineteenth-century America's Aesthetics of Alienation. Greece: University of Georgia Press.

In this passage pulled from the reading, Cooper is bringing attention to the disparities and differences seen in the way that culture and architecture was preserved in certain parts of the world. In particular she is singling out North America and the loss of a sense of what the country was it its past environment. I admire that she discusses the specific example of the last Dutch house being removed in New York as a representation of the Old Age not being represented in society. Her wording would suggest that she sees this loss of preservation as a negative attribute of American culture. It is interesting to note, as the reading continues, that Cooper never does give a concrete answer or solution for this historical preservation but that she would be supportive of the historical preservation efforts that are ongoing in current society.

Although Cooper is not happy with the state of the preserved cultural infrastructure in America, through her reading we do understand that she feels the country has other elements that are worth preserving and bringing attention too. Cooper seems to be appreciating the richness of the American landscape, and the notion that culture and landscape should be conserved. Johnson, cited above, adds on to this notion as she points out that Cooper understands that historical monuments, infrastructure, and architecture were not saved in the culture of America, but that the landscape and natural features may be the last remaining ruins and representations of the old age/world. Cooper notions that ancient remains and ruins are what makes the current society appreciate ancient civilizations. This notion that these remains are replaced here in the Americas by the Earth and forestlands, leaves the question of it the same significance and importance will be given to us, in the future generations.

This particular piece of the passage is interesting to note because it points to the maidan offering freedom without obligation. Mathur describes this more in depth in the reading, and points out that the maidan was a place that accommodated a range of social and political structures. She refers to it as a "place where people can touch the spirit of the commons" which I believe is referring to the common person, the nomadic spirit, and the individual and collective spirit of people. Seen here the maidan exemplifies engagement and negotiation between claimed and shifting ground, never being defined. This relates back to the aspect of freedom, just in another way. In this passage, Mathur specifies the citizens of a city that benefit from the maidan horizon and this is important to show the connection that people had with the maidan.

"In Calcutta nothing symbolizes urban growth and planning under british rule more, than the Maidan and its surrounding areas-it may be said that the city grew around this open space. Yet informed discussion has eluded this most important piece of colonial urban planning. Historic documents shed light on the temporal and spatial development of this space, as the traders' economic and political power grew, and humble hamlets and trading posts surrounded by mixed jungle, transformed into the a vast, mighty empire."

De, S., & Chakraborty, B. (2010). Maidan: The Open Space in History. Social Scientist, 38(1/2), 3-22. Retrieved October 29, 2020

This particular quote is from a traveler who is describing in detail, experience of the maidan to someone new. The strong use of adjectives such as pleasant and aromatic point to a place of enjoyment and happiness for the people of the time. Like a modern day park or plaza, the maidan served as a place where a range of activities, personal interest, and social gathering took place. As described by the traveler, the maidan functions in complexity, often times extending the boundaries of a city, or beginning the center for its expansion. With no defined definition, the maidan was a place born of desire and freedom. The open space established a human domain in the landscape and sharpened boundaries while also obtaining a sense of vastness.

I admire the unspecified and nomadic nature that the maidan possessed for these historic cities, and can see traces of the activity that took place here (sports events, political rallies, religious ceremonies, and individual aspirations) in our modern-day cities. In order to achieve this flexibility and diverse use of space in today's society, I would see program and function becoming loosely framed instead of adamantly named/titled.

"In Calcutta nothing symbolizes urban growth and planning under british rule more, than the Maidan and its surrounding areas-it may be said that the city grew around this open space. Yet informed discussion has eluded this most important piece of colonial urban planning. Historic documents shed light on the temporal and spatial development of this space, as the traders' economic and political power grew, and humble hamlets and trading posts surrounded by mixed jungle, transformed into the a vast, mighty empire."

De, S., & Chakraborty, B. (2010). Maidan: The Open Space in History. Social Scientist, 38(1/2), 3-22. Retrieved October 29, 2020

This particular quote is from a traveler who is describing in detail, experience of the maidan to someone new. The strong use of adjectives such as pleasant and aromatic point to a place of enjoyment and happiness for the people of the time. Like a modern day park or plaza, the maidan served as a place where a range of activities, personal interest, and social gathering took place. As described by the traveler, the maidan functions in complexity, often times extending the boundaries of a city, or beginning the center for its expansion. With no defined definition, the maidan was a place born of desire and freedom. The open space established a human domain in the landscape and sharpened boundaries while also obtaining a sense of vastness.

I admire the unspecified and nomadic nature that the maidan possessed for these historic cities, and can see traces of the activity that took place here (sports events, political rallies, religious ceremonies, and individual aspirations) in our modern-day cities. In order to achieve this flexibility and diverse use of space in today's society, I would see program and function becoming loosely framed instead of adamantly named/titled.

I chose this quote from the passage because it is a clear representation of the discussion that Ruskin is having in the two dividing perspectives and views of nature that a person possesses. In one instance here, the person admires the landscape, taking notice to the blossoms from flowers or the position of the moon. This person shows sensitivity to nature, as I believe Ruskin would say, using their eyes to view the changes over time, or aspects that make them feel a certain way. The manner in which the quote is worded, that it is a ‘natural feeling’ to feel this admiration for nature is not seen as true, as we know that some persons’ do not share the same compassion and curiosity. The author also knows this is this true, as they are noting that some will only ever value nature for the aesthetic, economic, or eco-centered agenda that it can obtain to them. Insensitivity in a person can be just as natural as sensitivity is. Ruskin discusses differences in the mind such as these in the Modern Painter. He also discusses his own perspective of how nature should be appreciated and how his views conflict and contrast from others of his time.

"The principle of direct observation and resistance to speculation leads to an attitude to nature that rests upon externals. All you need to know can be discovered by simply using your own eyes. The 'laws of the organization of the earth are distinct and fixed as those of the animal frame, simpler and broader, but equally authoritative and inviolable. Their results may be arrived at without knowledge of the interior mechanism; but [Ruskin adds significantly] for that very reason ignorance is the more disgraceful, and violation of them more unpardonable.' (3.425) This determinedly non-speculative, non-analytical approach — he says of the Alps, 'we must begin where all theory ceases; and where observation becomes possible' (26.112) — may seem limited, but he was following a common method of his time. Jameson's System of Mineralogy."

Hewinson, Robert. Chapter One: Ruskin and Nature. Landcaster University. 2019

Ruskin’s sensitivity to the beauty of the Earth and how people perceive nature occurs as the core of what the chosen passage in Modern Painters is referring too. In this selection, Ruskin is exploring how the mind/person operates and sees nature, in pursuit of admiration for it. He explains two different scenarios in which one, the person is mindless, ‘vacant of knowledge’ and not having the ability to appreciate and respond to complex emotional or aesthetic influence such as the ambiance of a scene in nature. This corresponds with Ruskin’s own analysis of a person’s perception of nature, as he acknowledges further in the reading, that each individual respond to nature differently, curiosity playing a large role in how this is emphasized. Examples he mentions are the engineer and how their scope of view looks at the technical aspects of landscape, or the painter who would be attentive to the shades of greens or hues of colors in a sunset. Each person of role has their own relationship and objective to nature, admiration and love being the forefront for some, but not all. The second scenario that Ruskin discusses in the selected passage, is the view of the person who is vast in their obtainment of knowledge, their senses high and intense, subjecting the object, place, or view to be a ‘keynote’ of the mind and thoughts. It is interesting to note here that Ruskin is critizing both scenarios, and it seems reflective of the experiences he had as a young boy. The comfortability, and addition of knowledge of nature’s edges and whole, led to a change in how Ruskin viewed nature over time. This is similar to Ruskin’s comparison that human’s relationship with nature over time can be compared to the way birds or insects interact and view nature. In this sense, he is referring to nature as an external object.

The passage chosen from Robert Hewinson, shows his discussion of Ruskin and his works from Modern Painter. He is noting the attitude that Ruskin had toward observation and representation of the landscape. Ruskin believed that landscape should be closely observed and represented, not as a generalization of an idea of what nature should be but what it truthfully was. Like Hewinson notes in the passage, Ruskin considered that the eyes to be the crucial entity that a person needed to discover and really see nature. Ruskin is noting that theory and imaginative knowledge and investigation is not the way to truly explore and document nature, but by true direct observation. We know this because of his identity, that he believed drawing and painting were acceptable methods in recording instances in the landscape.

Ruskin's overall resistance to the changes in science that were taking place mid-century, point to the either or mentality that is placed in the mind of the beholder of nature. In this instance he is pointing out that either is to try to do more than see truly, either by theoretical analysis or emotional self-identification, is mere egoism.

The principle of direct observation and resistance to speculation leads to an attitude to nature that rests upon externals. All you need to know can be discovered by simply using your own eyes. The 'laws of the organization of the earth are distinct and fixed as those of the animal frame, simpler and broader, but equally authoritative and inviolable. Their results may be arrived at without knowledge of the interior mechanism; but [Ruskin adds significantly] for that very reason ignorance is the more disgraceful, and violation of them more unpardonable.This determinedly non-speculative, non-analytical approach — he says of the Alps, 'we must begin where all theory ceases; and where observation becomes possible — may seem limited, but he was following a common method of his time. Jameson's System of Mineralogy.

Hewinson, Robert. Chapter One: Ruskin and Nature. Landcaster University. 2019

I agree with Rob’s contextualizing of his passage, that the language and descriptive imagery that Tagore uses in his discussion, point to the way that Eastern civilization saw nature during this time, as opposed to Western civilization. Comparing the reading of Gunha to this is particular, leads us to understand the way that one society can view an element of nature as an entity, a boundary, and physical force we subject to human manipulation. On the other hand, in this frame of Indian society, nature is seen as beautiful and as something that puts the mind at ease, worth connecting with and establishing clear relationships. The stark contrast in the world perspectives of how humankind should advance with natures elements, it is clear that this idea of interpretation, changes and shifts from culture, to culture and from society and locations of the world.

"Nature, the environment, or even single complex ecosystems are seldom easily quantifiable as bounded entities with geographically clear borders. Within the complex spectrum of establishing where a legal subject ends and another begins, however, rivers are somewhat more easily identifiable, their very being premised on historicized boundaries that measure their watery ambit from riverbed to riverbank. And yet, rivers still elude a final, clearly defined, and uncontroversial description. As a result, rivers inhabit a liminal space, one that is at the same time somewhat geographically bounded and yet metaphorically transcendent, physically shifting, and culturally porous."

Clark, C., & Pelizzon, A. (2019). Can You Hear the Rivers Sing? Legal Personhood, Ontology, and the Nitty- Gritty of Governance. Ecology Law Quarterly, 45(784), 787-799.

In relation to Cunha and his discussion of the character and form that a river upholds, Clark and Pelizzon’s look into the legal personhoods and identity of the river in a modern society, coincide with one another. The rivers of the world form and outline boundaries ranging from city, country, and communities and both authors are taking into account the complexity that comes along with identifying these boundaries. Determining where the beginnings and ends of where such areas of human civilization will exist, place pressure and value on the river’s existence. We see this in modern-day society as many of the largest and productive cities, reside near the banks and outer edges of a river. Clark discusses these edges and borders, as he acknowledges the geographic presence and clarity that rivers possess in the grand scheme of landscape. They have significant qualities that allow us to identify them such as the Mississippi River with its winding bends and mass scale of land that it passes and flows through. I find it important to note here in the academic journal, the view of rivers is seen as divine, consistently changing, and historical boundaries that helped to form agriculture, industrial, and eco-centered structures around the world.

Shown in these two extracts, Cunha and Clark both have similar views of how rivers are portrayed and represented in society. They bring attention to the river’s edges and the complexity of the river’s physical form. Cunha emphasizes the simple difference that separates water from land, and the holding of water that is a river is. These descriptions give insight to some of perspective’s and views that people had of rivers during this time. Some advocating and supporting the true physical form and characteristics of the river. This is important to note because it clarifies the ongoing relationship that humans and society were beginning to develop with nature’s elements and features. Complexity describes the system in which the river as entity would be used. This is important to note also, the way bodies of water such as rivers were engrained into the foundation of various/multiple cultures from around the world.

I find this quote from the chosen passage, interesting in its comparison to the passage I chose. In my section of Guha's writing, discussed is Marsh's support and advice for public ownership of the land such as agencies like the US Forest Service. "’ Pre-eminent here was the need for public ownership of forests and water, resources so vital to the social and economic life of the nation" Marsh promotes his support in public ownership over private. In the chosen quote above, Guha analyzes the result of such public ownership, and the pressure it put between the forest agencies and the communities the forest shared. I have to wonder if Marsh expected these tensions to occur? That if the forests were infiltrated with strict management and ownership from the State, that it would create a power divide within the people?

"Marsh described the destruction resulting from human exploitation across the globe and made adroit comparisons to the fall of ancient civilizations. Environmental historian William Cronon has described Marsh’s vision as “apocalyptic”; however, he also noted that “Marsh … combined this dark prophecy with a deeply optimistic faith that disaster could be averted if only people responded in time.” *

*Mitchell, N. F., & Diamond, R. (2015). The Necessity of Stewardship: George Perkins Marsh and the Nature of Conservation. The George Wright Forum, 32(3), 257-265.**

As scholar Mitchell notes here in her analysis of Man and Nature, it was important to take fact to Marsh's ideology and the way in which he viewed human's and society's involvement with the destruction of natural lands/resources. From early civilizations of deforestation and clearings, to heavy uses of fields for agriculture, Mitchell notes Marsh's comparisons to modern day practices and beginning times, and the relationship with nature always centering back to an element of depletion. Although the actions of humankind have been negative and have caused negative consequences, Marsh does hold optimistic ideals and views that see society mending the transgressions held against nature.

To reinforce his argument, Marsh, the practical Vermonter, “ransacked libraries and landscapes alike in search of evidence.”But he also presented practical solutions gathered from his foreign travels. As we would say today, he was documenting and sharing “best practices,”particularly focusing on a handful of good land management examples from Europe: “on narrow theatres, new forests have been planted, inundations of flowing streams restrained … "

Mitchell, N. F., & Diamond, R. (2015). The Necessity of Stewardship: George Perkins Marsh and the Nature of Conservation. The George Wright Forum, 32(3), 257-265.**

Taking notice to Marsh's distinct clarification in that during this time and novel, he was not just giving theoretical ideologies and speculations for conservation and how to address deforestation, etc, but that his suggestions were of practical meaning and were meant to be used in a certain way. His understanding of technical skills and the methods and work behind management discrepancies played a large role in these suggestions and principles. One of the main practical methodologies was his belief in the application of science to problem-solving. He was aware and had observed the impacts that humans were having on the environment, and noted that in particular, a way to restore the disturbed ecosystems, was to improve management and ways of dealing with deforestation. This is one example of the interventions Marsh was pertinent on gaining understanding and solutions too.

"Humans are part of nature, not separate entities occupying opposing conceptual and literal territory. Once this axiom is accepted—a proposition that is not without controversy, even at the beginning of the 21st century—the discussion can turn to landscape. Throughout its first three hundred years as a concept in the English language, landscape was a cultural practice that explicitly worked to represent human cultures in an integral relationship with the natural world, first as a genre of painting that placed the traditional themes and human subjects of art into a larger environmental context, and then as a practice of shaping “unimproved” nature into picturesque scenery. However, as Cosgrove has argued, by the end of the 19th century landscape’s representational and artistic power began to diminish as modernism and modernization constructed a dichotomous worldview that isolated cultural production as a rarified and abstract domain, disconnected from a natural world increasingly categorized and classified through the lens of science."

Blankenship, Jeffrey David, "Reading Landscape: Mid-Century Modernism and the Landscape Idea" (2011). Open Access Dissertations. 324

This passage was interesting to note, particularly to me as Olmsted is a significant figure in landscape architecture and the shift from agriculture to industrial landscape typologies is discussed. Hutton first explains the original motives and design of Central Park as a pastoral farmland. The park at this time was designed where topography hid the city and it served as a working farm. This proved beneficial to the city of New York and communities of the area took advantage of the semi-rural environment, tending gardens and improving soil. Soil at this time was fertilized with horse manure and processed waste, which only increased prosperity and production. The shift from high-quality compost to fertilizers like guana was the moment Waring is quoted on in this passage. Because of an overwhelming swap to fertilizers and decrease of use in manure, the soil was never as healthy and the oceans and streams infected with human waste.

Hutton speaks more on this shift in landscape function and how the early stages of Central Park mimic a cultural practice of the time. These practices work to represent human cultural and an integral relationship with the natural world. This does make sense, as the demands of society changed (industrial endeavours, technology and science advancements), the demands for what the function and use of landscapes would be also changed. As Blankenship describes it could be seen as a shift from representational and artistic views and design to a dichotomous view of modernism and modernization.

I chose this quote from the chosen passage because I found it interesting to read in relation to Bacon’s view of nature as a source of production and usage. Palma discusses the enclosure here as both a destruction of cultural norms and traditions and as a means of agricultural prosperity for society. This is also true for society during Bacon’s view of nature as the manipulation of the land, rivers, mountains, and other land typologies led to economic gain for society but a loss to their connection with nature. (although many in Bacons time blamed women for that loss). It was not a surprise to note also in the passage that most of the agricultural productivity that did occur from the creation of enclosures, was unevenly distributed throughout the lands. This made for a large loss in cultural identity and large gaps forming between class.

The concept of a second creation and the Edenic recovery has a long history. Cicero in De natura deorum (45 B.C.) conceived of a second nature that humans create by channeling the rivers to suit their needs, by sowing and fertilizing the soil of the plains and the mountains to bear fruit and wheat, and by planting trees to shade their gardens and parks. Medieval Catholic and later Protestant theologians believed that Christians possessed a divine creative spark that would enable them to design tools and machines capable of transforming the land into a new Garden of Eden.

Hughes, T. P. (2004). How to Think about Technology and Culture. In 944899466 737787191 T. Hughes (Ed.), Human Built World (pp. 17-27). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

The chosen passage by Merchant points to the visions and views of Bacon specific to his revelation of the sciences role in nature. The involvement and exploitation of science in relation to the manipulation of nature is reinforced in Bacon's and some philosophers' frame of mind during this time. This is important to note because of the 'new organon' and that being resolved as scientific methods combined with mechanical methods to obtain a unified knowledge of material power and dominion over nature.

This establishment of human dominion and the mechanical arts (teché) are what is described during this time as man operating nature to create something new. This is not far fetched from what we view design as today, the main difference being our acknowledging to our part in the manipulation of the land and the goal to not achieve dominion but balance. (in modern day landscape architecture practices) Bacon's objective in offering the significance of science and mechanical tools, point to achieving the "mastering or management of nature to obtain services for human life"; disagrees with these modern day views/practices.

Hughes discusses the managing and human egocentrism as well, indicating the manipulation of water typologies such as rivers for the channelization of water, or tending the land for soil suitable for our chosen species of growth. Bacon seems to give reason for his bound of nature for our own use and advantage, in that in order to search the depths and beginnings of the Earth there must be a dissection of nature. From Merchant's critique of science as a manipulation method, we can begin to pull direct connections from Bacon's look at exploration into the remoter nature and its relation to to current day transgressions still in place. An example could be tree deforestation and the destruction and manipulation of nature to achieve a human-use or function.

"The concept of a second creation and the Edenic recovery has a long history. Cicero in De natura deorum (45 B.C.) conceived of a second nature that humans create by channeling the rivers to suit their needs, by sowing and fertilizing the soil of the plains and the mountains to bear fruit and wheat, and by planting trees to shade their gardens and parks. Medieval Catholic and later Protestant theologians believed that Christians possessed a divine creative spark that would enable them to design tools and machines capable of transforming the land into a new Garden of Eden."

Hughes, T. P. (2004). How to Think about Technology and Culture. In 944899466 737787191 T. Hughes (Ed.), Human Built World (pp. 17-27). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

The concept of a second creation and the Edenic recovery has a long history. Cicero in De natura deorum (45 B.C.) conceived of a second nature that humans create by channeling the rivers to suit their needs, by sowing and fertilizing the soil of the plains and the mountains to bear fruit and wheat, and by planting trees to shade their gardens and parks. Medieval Catholic and later Protestant theologians believed that Christians possessed a divine creative spark that would enable them to design tools and machines capable of transforming the land into a new Garden of Eden.

Hughes, T. P. (2004). How to Think about Technology and Culture. In 944899466 737787191 T. Hughes (Ed.), Human Built World (pp. 17-27). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

'Irrigation was essential for gardening in the dry climate of North Africa and Middle East. Except during rainy season, water was drawn from catchment basins, rivers, canals, rainwater cisterns and even from water table itself. Ideally, the source of water was above the destination point, a surface canal led to a basin on high ground near the palace, where it could be released as needed, flowing by gravity into the palace and the gardens. When the source of water was lower than the field, a garden or a residence where it was to be used, either a water wheel or Shaduf which is a pole and lever was used to lift the water in the buckets. Alternatively, in some landscapes, a qanat (subterranean canal) could tap the elevated water at the base of the mountain and carry it underground for many miles to a human made oasis of farms and gardens. The mutual reliance on irrigation is but one indication of close connection between garden and farming. Due to the ephemeral nature of plant life, no gardens survive from the medieval era, but historical descriptions, botanical treatise, agricultural manuals and even poetry reflects the importance of gardening.'

Ansari, N. (2012, July). Islamic Garden. Retrieved 2020, from www.medomed.org.

From the perspective of both Ruggles and Ansari, it is evident the significance that water played in the landscape during this period of time. Ansari simplifies the methods used and describes the different landscape typologies (river, basin) that the source of water, used in these gardens, come from. This irrigation network is what Ruggles discusses in the passage chosen, showing how this "four-part cross axial plan" was shifted and mended to create the same function for palaces or an agricultural specific landscape. The importance of water and irrigation is shown as both a functional aspect that can be seen in gardening or agriculture. It is also shown as cultural and aesthetic pleasure "(decorative water channels and fountains"), adding representation to the way the gardens were viewed.

Ruggles, D. (2008). Organizing the Earth: Cross-axial Gardens and the Chahar Bagh. In Islamic Gardens and Landscapes (pp. 39-50). University of Pennsylvania Press.

It is interesting to note here the way the word 'chahar bagh' and its meaning changed over time, ending in a meaning that was able to describe the garden in different forms. It is not discussed here, but further in this chapter Ruggles describes two various ways this axial plan was used in the palatine gardens. Varying by the landscape type and closeness to the inner city, it is noted that canals created in the plan on the outskirts of the city, were larger in scale, designed for flooding to "penetrate into the soil". This differs slightly from the use seen in the royal palace gardens, where exotic plant varieties were vast, and the plots seen in the agriculture fields, were mimicked and decorated and/or elaborated in some way.

Ruggles, D. Fairchild. “The Garden as Paradise: The Historical Beginnings of Paradisaic Iconography.” In Islamic Gardens and Landscapes, 40. University of Pennsylvania Press, 2011.

This passage chosen by Juan seems to reflect on the various distinctions seen in two different culture’s understanding of paradise and the garden. It is noted that the one who holds power and wealth (the king) and his garden are viewed as paradise-like with reference to earthly delights, that one can assume to mean the land and its elements. In another instance, King Wen and the society at this time views its gardens and parks as sacred lands, not just employed for human enjoyment or fulfillment. It is interesting to note the variations in how each period of time or culture views the land in connection to human life. Shuen mentions in her essay, that “utopia is usually conceived by Western thinkers as a place of perfection, especially in its social, political, and moral life within a culture”, (Lin 125) which lies more in comparison to the Summons of the Soul. The nourishment of an individual (human) inner life, is seen in the gardens of this time and are molded by these two ancient beliefs, that the land is attained or defied by people. Simplified to mean either a sacred view of paradise or one meant to provide enjoyment or mental exploration.

The passage below that speaks of stewardship and ethical alternative can be interpreted into the various organizations, groups, and efforts that are active now in current society. The "spirit of stewardship" and promoting protection, better well-being, and appropriate management for landscapes is seen in the goal of obtaining lands, and helping to restore them to natural states. The instance in stated in that God asked for "tending of the Earth" sits in conjunction with even the role of landscape architects, and gardeners who study this action.

This passage seems to take into account the various functions and usage that a landscape can take on in one setting. Natural or unnatural. The walled garden in this instance is the landscape and was designed in geometrical lines and edges to obtain different objectives. For example it seems that aesthetic and atmosphere is the focus with the lining of the trees for shade and privacy. In another instance the performative side of the garden is revealed in the collection of water for irrigation.

This passage seems to take into account the various functions and usage that a landscape can take on in one setting. Natural or unnatural. The walled garden in this instance is the landscape and was designed in geometrical lines and edges to obtain different objectives. For example it seems that aesthetic and atmosphere is the focus with the lining of the trees for shade and privacy. In another instance the performative side of the garden is revealed in the collection of water for irrigation.

This passage from the second chapter of Reinventing Eden, relates to a period in history called the Anthropocene. This period highlights the arrival of humans, marking the death of the untouched world. Meaning to represent the ending of the "natural" world that humans had not yet encompassed their needs and wants unto.

This is similar to what we see and experience today in how human occupation and livelihood has lessened our connection with the Earth. The actions we inflict in turn, have disrupted many, if not all ecological systems set in place before our arrival.

Sustainability efforts, remediation, and comparative methods point to this current generation and society's own efforts to recreate our own version of "Eden" and to repair the loss of the "original partnership with the land"

Sparke, Penny, Interior, Landscape, and Architecture in the Era of Liquid Modernity; Bloomsbury: p. 6-17

This selection from the second chapter of, Reinventing Nature, can relate to the period of the Anthropocene, where the arrival of humans marked the death of the "untouched world". In particular, the ending of a purely natural word that humans had not yet encompassed their needs and wants unto.

This desire to take and manage the land, is similar to what we see today in human occupation and livelihood. Consequences from these acts lessened the human connection with the Earth as described in Eden, and the actions that were inflicted by humans disrupted many, if not all ecological systems in place.

Sustainability efforts, remediation, etc point to the current human society and generational efforts to re-create our own version of Eden, our pristine Earth. The ultimate goal being to repair "the loss of the original partnership with the land. "

Flow: Interior, Landscape, and Architecture in the Era of Liquid Modernity; Bloomsbury: p. 6-17

This passage was chosen in relation to the Epic of Gilgamesh and its references to nature. In my analysis of the poem, these references had elements that are familiar to how the sublime is portrayed in nature.

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the author's description of the landscapes in which he passes and treks through are noted heavily. The imagery, descriptions, and actions attached to moments in the landscape pointed me to sublime. Nature is seen as sacred, massive, powerful, and beautiful through the eyes of Gilgamesh. In either the land being a punishment for the peoples (drought, plague) or the land displaying great beauty and peace "full of trees with leaves of jewels", nature symbolize an omnipotent stature, similar to the way we view the sublime in nature.