genes, proteins, and physiology.

natural selection

Table 25.4 A sampling of expressions in animals studied by Charles Darwin to which he ascribed various emotions, some of which are shown.

Figure 24.21 Percentage mortality of test populations of different species in response to 48 hour exposure to cells of one of two dinoflagellate species at different concentrations. A.m., Alexandrium monilatum; G.b., Gymnodinium breve; nd, not determined (all other absent bars are 0 values). The numbers in the legend (0.7, 1.0, 5.0, and 9.9) are concentrations of cell cultures × 106. From Sievers, 1969, Figures 1-8.

Figure 24.20 Daily surface irradiance (teal) and % PAR at 1 meter depth (purple) before, during, and after an A. minutum bloom. From Maguer et al, 2004, Figure 5

Figure 24.19 Concentrations of three nutrients (A and C) before, during, and after a bloom of the toxic dinoflagellate A. minutum. Uptake rates of nutrients (B and D) in samples of water collecting on the indicated dates. In C and D the purple trace is ammonium and the teal trace is phosphate

Figure 24.17 Maximum bloom of A. minutum over 3 years plotted against environmental parameters measured during each year’s bloom in an estuary off the coast of France. A, Temperature; B, salinity; C, nitrate; D, ammonium; E, phosphate.

Figure 24.16 Harmful algal blooms (HABs) in Chinese coastal waters. Note the gap between 1992 and 2007. From Zhang, 1994, Figure 3 and

Figure 24.15 Percentages of total toxic algal bloom events and total annual deposition for nutrients that occurred in each month, averaged over 6 years (1988-1993). Blooms only occurred between April and November. Data from Zhang, 1994, Figure 5.

Figure 24.14 Nutrient concentrations of water sources (A) and nutrient inputs into coastal Yellow Sea habitats (B).

Figure 24.13 Accumulation of nitrite in bacterial cultures provided with ammonium sulfate, average +/- 1 standard error is show

Figure 24.11 Response of chickpeas to two fertilizer conditions or rhizobia inoculation. A, Mass of nodules per plant sampled during flowering. B, Aboveground dry mass of harvested plots. C, Total nitrogen of harvested plots. D, Total nitrogen fixed on harvested plots; not determined (nd) for high nitrogen plots.

Table 24.2 Soil nitrogen used and returned in different treatments of three initial crops and total nitrogen in harvested sorghum plants. All values in kg/ha. Fr

Table 24.1 Source of nitrogen for three crops. All values are in kg/ha

Figure 24.8 Nitrogen content of aboveground portions of crops. Barley plots had either the same amount of nitrogen fertilizer as faba bean and pea or three times as much (high N

Figure 24.6 Effects of shaking on the growth of four dinoflagellate species grown in the laboratory (A to D) and effects of nitrogen source (E) and concentration of ammonium (F) on growth of A. carterae. Figures 1 and 4 from Dixon and Syrett, 1988, © 2006, John Wiley and Sons.

Figure 24.4 Growth curves of L. plantarum grown at 18.2 (a) and 35oC (b). Figures 2 and 3. From Zweitering et al. 1990 Figures 2 and 3. Modeling of the bacterial growth curve. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 56(6):1875–1881. Reprinted with permission from American Society for Microbiolo

Figure 24.1 Schematic of cell division for yeast observed on agar plates under microscope. The shaded cell is the original parent cell; its first division yielded one offspring cell (A). The second generation is shown in B, and the third and fourth generations are shown in C. Roman numerals indicate the generation and Arabic numerals number of minutes, in 5 minute increments, for the indicated cell to appear. Each cell, including the parent cell, divided in each generation.

Figure 23.16 Effects of loss of p16Ink4a on stem cell colony self-renewal (A), proliferation (B), and BrdU incorporation (C) in adult CNS stem cells and stem cell colony self-renewal (D), proliferation (E), and BrdU incorporation (F) in PNS stem cells. Self-renewal was measured as the ratio of spherical stem cells to original isolated stem cells. * indicates that the p16Ink4a deficient mouse stem cells had a statistically different response than stem cells from normal mice. Error bars equal 1 SE. Figure 3c-f from Molofsky et al., 2003, reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Figure 23.15 Effects of loss of Bmi-1 on stem cell colony proliferation (A), cell death (B), and 5-bromodeoxyuridine incorporation (BrdU+) (C). In A, CNS stem cells from newborn mice were dissociated and plated in cultures, and the number of cells per colony was counted after 4, 7, and 14 days. * indicates that the Bmi-1 deficient mouse stem cells had a statistically different response from normal mice. Figure 2 from Molofsky et al., 2003, reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd.

Table 23.6 Brain transplant experiments of R. prolixus individuals to determine the source of molting hormone. In each experiment, the indicated organ or part of the brain was transplanted from a post-critical period R. prolixus and transplanted to a fourth stage precritical period R. prolixus.

Effects of SGLT1 and GLUT2 on glucose accumulation and blood plasma glucose, as measured by amount of radioactive tracer. Purple bars are wild-type, and teal bars are mutant mice. A, Mean accumulation of glucose in intestinal tissue samples for sglt1 wild-type and mutant mice. B, Mean amount of glucose in blood plasma for sglt1 wild-type and mutant mice. C, Mean accumulation of glucose in intestinal tissue samples for glut2 wild-type and mutant mice. D, Mean amount of glucose in blood plasma for glut2 wild-type and mutant mice. Error bars represent + 1 standard error (SE). Statistical analyses were performed using a t-test. *, p-value < 0.05; **, p-value < 0.01. n = 4 to 6 mice per group. Röder et al. 2014, Figures 1 and 3. PLoS One 9(2): e89977. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0089977. © 2014 Röder et al.

Activation of parietal cells.

Prevalence of Giardia in beaver and nutria captured in east Texas. Data from Dunlap and Thies, 2002, Tables 1 and 2.

Figure 22.15 Distribution of G. lamblia cell types in gerbils in four sections of the intestines (A to D). Each point is the mean of three samples from each intestinal section for the four gerbils killed on any particular day, and error bars represent 1 SE of the mean.

Table 22.6 A, Percentages of tissues from ten mice injected with either non-engineered or genetically engineered B. burgdorferi that showed active bacterial infections 30 days after injection. B, Percentages of tissues from six mice injected with a particular dose of either non-engineered or genetically engineered B. burgdorferi that showed active bacterial infections 30 days after injection.

KC activity of cell culture supernatants. The first 200 leucocytes observed in each sample were identified as either neutrophils or monocytes. The percentage shown is the overall percentage for all mice sampled. Bb, B. burgdorferi;

Table 22.5 Percentages of mice and ticks infected with the indicated strain of B. burgdorferi. The final column is the percentage of ticks that were reinfected by feeding on mice that had been infected in the experimen

Table 22.4. Incidence of the malaria parasite in blood of normal and sickle-cell children from a small community in Uganda, Africa, and adult males dosed with the malaria parasite.

able 22.3. Solubility (g/L) of normal and sickle-cell hemoglobin at different ionic strengths. de-O2, deoxygenated; O2, oxygenated forms of hemoglobin. Data from Per

able 22.2. Amino acid sequence alignment for the peptide hemoglobin chain #4 from Figure 22.3, reconstructed from peptide fragments in Figure 22.4. E, Glutamic acid; H, histidine; K, lysine; L, leucine; P, proline; T, threonine; V, valine. Data from Ingram, 1957, Figure 2.

Figure 22.2 The distribution pattern of hemoglobin represented as scanning diagrams of hemoglobin from normal individuals (A), individuals with sickle cell anemia (B), individuals with the mild form of sickling (C), and an artificial mixture of hemoglobin from normal and sickle-cell anemia individuals at pH 6.9 (D). Each peak represents a distinct band and the arrows represent the line of no movement

Movement of normal and sickle-cell hemoglobin at different pHs. Data from Pauling et

Figure 21.22 Growth rates of two mussels in a bare rock patch in the low intertidal zone. Data points represent shell lengths of the ten largest individuals found in the patch on each sampling date. Dashed lines to the x-axis indicate estimated times of settlement and initial growth in the patch. Arrows on the growth curves indicate the smallest size at which each species may reach sexual maturity. Figure 4 from Suchanek, 1981, reprinted with kind permission from Springer Science and Business Media.

Figure 21.20 Percent of studies reporting spawning activity of the California mussel (Cal) and the blue mussel (blue) in different months. N = 10 studies for California and 7 for blue mussel. Sporadic spawning refers to a low level of spawning. D

Figure 21.19 Cumulative frequency distributions of heights of resprouting stems of two savanna tree species. The thick line is the distribution of monkey bread tree resprouted stems, and the thin lines are for ordeal tree resprouted stems. The dashed line is the cumulative frequency distribution of the ordeal stem heights multiplied

Figure 21.18 Stems that survived (open squares) or died (black circles) after exposure to a particular temperature for both the ordeal tree (A) and the monkey bread tree (B). The line represents the regression of the estimated lethal temperature for each diameter, defined as the midpoint of the maximum diameter dead point and minimum diameter live point at each temperature.

Photosynthetic and respiration characteristics of hydrilla plants grown under several light levels. Light levels are µEinsteins/m2/sec, and rates are µmoles of CO2/mg chlorophyll/hour. Values from first two columns are estimates from a best fit curve of CO2 change versus light level, and values from last two columns are means of 6 plants + 1 SD

Figure 21.16 LUE as a function of the duration of light flashes. A, Values for leaves that had been induced with high light intensity to produce maximum photosynthesis response, followed by a period of time in shade, prior to light flash exposure. B, Values for leaves that had not been induced prior to light flash exposure.

Figure 21.15 Percentage of maximum induction after 60 second exposure to bright light. A, Leaves were kept in shade for several hours. Understory shrubs are U1-U3, edge species are E1 and E2, and the open clearing specialist is C1. Similar letters above each bar indicate groups that were not statistically different from each other, and different letters above two bars indicate significant differences. B, Leaves were kept in bright light, followed by varying exposure times to shade, prior to exposure to bright light. Orange squares, brown circles, and green triangles are understory species, pink diamonds and teal triangles are edge/gap species, and the purple hexagons are for the clearing species. Values are means + 1 SD.

Properties of the light environment in the forest understory near edges or small gaps and in clearings in a Panama rainforest. A, Average total daily light photons, which is a quantitative measure of light intensity. B, Number of time periods that receive high light intensity, correlated with number of light flashes. C, Duration of high light intensity periods, a measure of the length of light flashes. D, Percentage of total light from A that was attributed to light flashes

Table 21.1. Seasonal variation of fruits from Spanish plants whose fruits are dispersed by birds. Means + 1 SD are shown. The second column contains terms from the OP equation described in text. s.s. = statistically significant among seasons.

Responses of garter snakes to newts. A, Percent resistance in snakes that consumed newts and lived or died and in snakes that rejected newts. Resistance is as defined in text. B, Time that snakes were exposed to (held in mouth prior to swallowing or rejecting) and time it took for snakes to recover after encounter with newts.

Figure 21.6 Average measures of yucca plant response as a function of pollen quantity and source. Purple bars = pollen from self, teal bars = pollen from a single other plant, and orange bars = pollen from multiple other plants. Error bars = 1 SE. A, Percent seed set is the % number of fertile seeds out of total seeds. B, Percentage of germinating seeds out of total selected for planting. C, Biomass of seedlings.

Average number of fruits retained in each plant in yucca plants as a function of pollen load (small vs. large) and pollen source. Pollen sources are the individual self, one other yucca, and more than one other yucca. Error bars = 1 standard error (SE)

The percentage of flower visits grouped by whether pollination was attempted and whether flowers had been visited previously. A, Moths that did not possess pollen during visit. B, Moths that possessed pollen during visit. The sum of all bars in both A and B add up to 100%

Plot of the percentages of (A) grazing mammals, (B) tree-climbing/dwelling mammals, and (C) fruit-eating mammals found in hominid fossil localities over time. The vertical dotted lines represent 2.5 and 1.8 MYA. Diamonds represent averages for east Africa locales, and circles represent averages for southern Africa locales.

Figure 20.19 Evolutionary reconstruction of hominids; the human family tree. Age ranges of fossils are shown by red lines, and tan lines represent inferred relationships based on fossil evidence. Major groups are contained within colored boxes. Au. = Australopithecus; P. = Paranthropus; H. = Homo. From

Skull measurements for unknown hominid fossil and several known species. If the range from multiple specimens is known, that is shown. Empty cells represent missing data. The upper lip length is the distance from the base of the nasal cavity to the base of the upper teeth. Canines are teeth. A. = Australopithecus, P. = Paranthropus, Pan troglodytes is the chimpanzee.

Specialized habitats of the forest canopy, pictured as a representative tree on left. The graph shows the frequency distribution of species (teal bars) and numbers of individuals (purple bars) in the habitats.

Morphology and pollen packet placement of modern orchids thought to be related to Meliorchis caribea (A) and hypothetical reconstruction of floral morphology of M. caribea (B). Orchid flowers often have a lip (lp) upon which pollinators land. The pollen packet (pl) lies at the end of the erect anther (an).

Evolutionary tree of major groups of plant species. The base of the tree trunk represents the common ancestor of plants. Flowering plants include orchids. See text for explanation of a, b, and c.